Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
http://d
0378-87

n Corr
E-m
1 Ph
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Antimalarial plants used by indigenous people of the Upper Rio Negro
in Amazonas, Brazil

Carolina Weber Kffuri a,n,1, Moisés Ahkʉtó Lopes b, Lin Chau Ming a, Guillaume Odonne c,
Valdely Ferreira Kinupp d

a Universidade Estadual Paulista, Faculdade de Ciências Agronômica de Botucatu, Departamento de Horticultura, Rua José Barbosa de Barros, 1780, 18.610-
307 Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
b Cunuri indigenous Community, São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas, Brazil
c CNRS-Guyane(USR 3456), 2 avenue Gustave Charlery, 97300 Cayenne, French Guiana
d Herbário EAFM, Instituto de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:
Received 6 July 2015
Received in revised form
24 November 2015
Accepted 30 November 2015
Available online 2 December 2015

Keywords:
Ethnopharmacology
Amazonia
Malaria
Aspidosperma schultesii
Ampelozizyphus amazonicus
Medicinal plants
x.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048
41/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights rese

esponding author.
ail address: carolkffuri@gmail.com (C.W. Kffur
one number: þ55 3799990614/þ55 143880
a b s t r a c t

Ethnopharmacological relevance: This is the first intercultural report of antimalarial plants in this region.
The aim of this study was to document the medicinal plants used against malaria by indigenous people in
the Upper Rio Negro region and to review the literature on antimalarial activity and traditional use of the
cited species.
Materials and methods: Participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and ethnobotanical walks
were conducted with 89 informants in five indigenous communities between April 2010 and November
2013 to obtain information on the use of medicinal plants against malaria. We reviewed academic da-
tabases for papers published in scientific journals up to January 2014 in order to find works on ethno-
pharmacology, ethnobotany, and antimalarial activity of the species cited.
Results: Forty-six plant species belonging to 24 families are mentioned. Fabaceae (17.4%), Arecaceae
(13.0%) and Euphorbiaceae (6.5%) account together for 36.9% of these species. Only seven plant species
showed a relatively high consensus. Among the plant parts, barks (34.0%) and roots (28.0%) were the
most widely used. Of the 46 species cited, 18 (39.1%) have already been studied for their antimalarial
properties according to the literature, and 26 species (56.5%) have no laboratory essays on antimalarial
activity.
Conclusions: Local traditional knowledge of the use of antimalarials is still widespread in indigenous
communities of the Upper Rio Negro, where 46 plants species used against malaria were recorded. Our
studies highlight promising new plants for future studies: Glycidendron amazonicum, Heteropsis tenuis-
padix, Monopteryx uaucu, Phenakospermum guianensis, Pouteria ucuqui, Sagotia brachysepala and notably
Aspidosperma schultesii, Ampelozizyphus amazonicus, Euterpe catinga, E. precatoria, Physalis angulata, Cocos
nucifera and Swartzia argentea with high-use consensus. Experimental validation of these remedies may
help in developing new drugs for malaria.

& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction

Malaria, a major public health problem in the world, is com-
plicated by the increased resistance of the parasite to antimalarial
drugs. The search for safe, new, and effective chemical structures
against the parasite has been undertaken in several countries.
Today, 3.3 billion people, half of the world's population, are at risk
for malaria, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions (WHO,
rved.

i).
7126.
2014). In Brazil, 99.7% of malaria transmission is concentrated in
the Amazon region, where it is considered the disease of greatest
magnitude according to the Ministry of Health (2013), and nu-
merous cases have been reported not far from the area of our
fieldwork (Cabral et al., 2010). Owing to the region's remoteness
and lack of resources, access to biomedicine and health centers is
often limited in the Brazilian Amazon, whose inhabitants favor the
use of medicinal plants. Some uses have already been documented
for the riverine populations (Silva et al., 2007), the urban and rural
people of the Rondônia and Pará states (Brandão et al., 1992a), and
the neighboring state of Roraima by Yanomami Amerindians
(Milliken and Albert, 1996), but based on our research, no single
use reflects the diversity of cultures present in the area. Excepting

www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03788741
www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048&domain=pdf
mailto:carolkffuri@gmail.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.048


C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198 189
a major work by Milliken (1997) on antimalarial plants of Roraima
more than 600 km to the west, our work is the first intercultural
report of antimalarial plants in the municipality of São Gabriel da
Cachoeira, Upper Rio Negro.
Fig. 1. Map of São Gabriel da Cachoeira and research area.
2. Material and methods

2.1. Study area

The municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira (Fig. 1) is located
in the extreme Northwest of the Amazonas state within the largest
rainforest on the planet, 852 km from the capital, Manaus. The
annual rainfall ranges from 2500 to 3000 mm, and the annual
average temperature is 26 ºC, making it one of the wettest and
least temperate regions in Amazonia (Radambrasil, 1976; Som-
broek, 2001). It comprises extensive areas of elevated relief, tepuis,
and isolated hills that emerge from a great plain. The vegetation in
the Upper Rio Negro basin resembles a mosaic pattern: caatingas,
campinaranas, wetlands, and dense montane and submontane
forests (Rizzini, 1979). According to Oliveira and Nelson (2001),
two characteristics of the flora stand out: the high biodiversity in a
region of extremely poor soil and a large number of endemic
species. The region of the Upper Rio Negro is also considered a
major cultural area. It includes six approved indigenous lands,
which are home to 23 ethnic groups who speak about 22 lan-
guages from five language families (Cabalzar and Ricardo, 2006).
Because of this area's colonial history, people mainly live in mul-
tiethnic communities.

2.2. Research authorization

Research authorizations were obtained for access to traditional
knowledge associated with genetic resources in Brazil as per the
2186-16 interim measure issued by the Brazilian Government
Management Board of the Genetic Heritage (CGEN) (protocol
number 02000.001373/2010-110), including authorization by the
National Indigenous Foundation (FUNAI), the Foundation of In-
digenous Organizations of Rio Negro (FOIRN), the local indigenous
foundation, three local indigenous association. All of the residents
of the communities studied gave their consent. The research began
upon receiving the authorizations, which took three years.

2.3. Ethnobotanical survey

Observations of participants in the municipality of São Gabriel
da Cachoeira lasted from the beginning of 2010 until mid-2012.
The researchers lived in the city for nine months and took several
trips to the city and communities. After authorization by CGEN, the
fieldwork was conducted between early September 2013 and the
end of November 2013, totaling over 91 days of continuous field
effort. Surveys were conducted in five indigenous communities
(Cunuri on the Uaupés River, Tapira Ponta on the Uaupés River,
Ilha das Flores at the confluence of the Uaupés and the Negro
River, Curicuriari at the confluence of the Curicuriari and Negro
River, and São Jorge on the Curicuriari River, which is only acces-
sible by boat). The communities are multiethnic and include na-
tive-born residents as well as those from various regions of the
municipality, including the neighboring country of Colombia. In-
terviews were conducted with every community resident age 18
or older who had contracted malaria or treated someone who
suffered from it (approximately 80% of the adult population). The
semi-structured face-to-face interviews contained questions re-
lated to the sociocultural characteristics of respondents, plants
used in their malaria treatment (excluding plants used for malaria-
like symptoms such as fever, headache, and others caused by other
diseases) parts of the plants used, and preparation and dosage. The
informants were asked how they were diagnosed and if they knew
of plants to treat or prevent the disease. The common names of the
plants were recorded in the language(s) of the respondent. Eth-
nobotanical walks were conducted to complement interviews and
collect botanical material. The plants were picked up and photo-
graphed. Interviews and walks were aided by Moises Lopes Dias, a
Tukano student and resident of the community of Cunuri. He
helped with the collection of botanical material, filming, and
translation and transcription of names from Tukano. He was paid
for his work and is the co-author of this publication.

The plants were identified by specialists when necessary (Sr.
José Ramos, Dr. Maria de Lourdes da Costa Soares Morais and Dr.
Michael Hopkins from Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazô-
nia (INPA), and Dr. Vidal de Freitas Mansano from Instituto de
Pesquisa do Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. The vouchers were
included in the IFAM Herbarium - Campus Manaus (Herbarium
EAFM). Names were checked with the List of Species of the Bra-
zilian Flora, Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden (http://floradobrasil.
jbrj.gov.br).

2.4. Quantitative analyses

Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)
This index was obtained by dividing the number of informants

who mentioned using the plant species by the number of in-
formants participating in the survey (N). It varies from 0, when
nobody referred to the plant as useful, to 1, in the unlikely case
that all the informants mentioned using the species (Tardío and
Santayana 2008).

http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br
http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br


C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198190
2.5. Literature review

The literature was reviewed from scientific journals in aca-
demic databases (Google Scholar, Capes Portal, PubMed, JSTOR,
EBSCO) of papers published up to January 2014 in order to find
work on ethnopharmacology, ethnobotany, and antimalarial ac-
tivity of the species cited as antimalarial in this research. The main
keywords were: antiplasmodial activity, Plasmodium, malaria, and
all accepted names and synonyms of the 46 species mentioned.
For antimalarial activity, we researched articles from all regions of
the planet. For references to ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology,
papers were selected from countries that are part of the Pan
Amazonia.
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Sociocultural characteristics of the informants

We interviewed 89 people in five indigenous communities. It is
difficult to precisely quantify the total population because re-
sidents travel a lot, and changes in community composition occur
constantly. We estimate that this number (89 people) is 80% of the
adult population. Of the respondents, 49 are men (55.1%) and 40
are women (44.9%).They belong to 10 ethnic groups. The Tukano
ethnic group is the most widely represented with 33.7% of re-
spondents, followed by Dessana (19.1%), Baré (14.6%), Tariano
(6.7%), Piratapuia (4.5%), Arapaço (4.5%), Baniwa (3.3%), Hupda
(3.3%), Curripaco (1.1%) and Bara (1.1%). Though most respondents
spoke Portugese, some spoke Spanish as well as 10 other in-
digenous languages. Most people interviewed spoke four or five
languages. Popular names are in the Nheengatu and Tukano lan-
guages, which are understood and spoken by all respondents. The
Nheengatu language (Tupi-Guarani family) was introduced into
the region by European missionaries, whereas there was no pre-
viously Tupi language, originally spoken by other indigenous
people of the Brazilian coast (Freire, 2004), and is the origin of
many plant names in Portuguese, thus explaining the lexical si-
milarities between the names cited in Nheengatu and in Portu-
guese. The average age of respondents was 46 and ranged from 22
to (approximately) 74.

3.2. The species used as antimalarial and general data on the species

3.2.1. Perception of the disease
According to the indigenous residents interviewed, the origins

and transmission of malaria are diverse. Ninety-one percent (81/
89) of the informants said that malaria is caused by the bite of a
mosquito, a belief for which the government’s anti-malaria inter-
ventions in the area might be responsible, though some in-
formants also pointed to other causes of the disease. Traditional
beliefs of malaria transmission were also voiced: the result of a
poisoned arrow from a malevolent mythical being after disobeying
the spirits, or the uprooting of the timbó vine (Deguelia amazonica
Killip) and the waukú flower (Monopteryx uaucu Spruce ex Benth.)
in the headwaters of rivers, which is subsequently drunk. It can
also be contracted through dreams of a plant called umari (Por-
aqueiba sericea Tul.) and in places where there are “malaria pots,”
stagnant water wells on depressions in river rocks, also described
by Buchillet (1995, 2000). Malaria is associated with sopro, a cul-
tural disease caused by spiritual beings (WaiMahsã) "blown" by
the shamans and only cured by benzimento (blessing) or by eating
or drinking mosquito urine or eggs in water or food. They use the
same word wuhaké (tukano) to refer to malaria and influenza,
which references the initial fever of both diseases. Nonetheless,
over a period of days, symptoms such as intermittent fever,
headache, joint pain, vomiting, and lack of appetite point to ma-
laria, which they tend to diagnose accurately. The disease is per-
ceived as dangerous and deadly if not treated in time. The majority
of participants (67.4%; 60/89) said they prefer to use remédio do
branco (white man’s medicine), i.e., antimalarial tablets distributed
by government health agencies. According to the informants, the
use of medicinal plants occurs when there is no access to the pills
distributed by the government: for example, on long trips, in gold
mines, and when health service by government agents is delayed.
Some participants (12.3%; 11/89) say they only use phytotherapy,
while the rest (87.7%; 78/89) say that herbal remedies only work
for a while, after which malaria comes back. Globally, most par-
ticipants believe in the efficacy of medicinal plants but prefer to
take the white man’s medicine because it is easier to administer
and works faster. Concomitant use was also reported (25.8%; 23/
89), but this information is often not divulged because govern-
ment health workers, arguing that the result would be a false
negative due to decreased parasitaemia, do not administer the
malaria test if the patient claims to have used a home remedy.
Informants report that they prefer to be treated by government
health workers in the community and go to the hospital in town
only for very severe cases. They claim that the doctors do not have
patience with them and fail to understand their perceptions of the
causes and cures for the disease.

3.2.2. Medicinal plant species
Forty-six plant species belonging to 24 families were men-

tioned for the treatment of malaria (Table 1).
Among the species collected, three families are characterized

by their species richness: Fabaceae (8 species/17.4%), Arecaceae (6
species/13.0%) and Euphorbiaceae (3 species/6.5%), which account
together for 36.9% of the mentioned species.

The Fabaceae family represented the highest number of anti-
malarial plants in the Brazilian Amazonia, as observed by Brandão
et al. (1992a), Santos et al. (2008) and Milliken and Albert (1997).
Milliken and Albert (1997) claim that although this may be un-
derstood as an indicator for the most pharmacologically active
families in the region, it probably reflects the size and diversity of
these families, thus influencing their representativeness. This hy-
pothesis is confirmed by Stropp et al. (2011) in the region, where
the most abundant family identified in the white sand forests and
upland was Fabaceae. The Arecaceae family, second on the list of
species, is an abundant family in the area and throughout the
humid tropics. The Euphorbiaceae family is also cited by Stropp
et al. (2011) as the third most abundant in upland and white sand
areas, and it is also the third highest in number of species cited in
our study. The Asteraceae family appears first on the plant families
list used as antimalarials in the work of Milliken (1997) and Oli-
veira et al. (2003) in the Brazilian Amazonia, but surprisingly, fa-
milies renowned for their antimalarial metabolites, such as As-
teraceae or Rubiaceae, are not highly cited.

The 46 species were classified into a) Amazonian native plants
that occur exclusively in the Amazonian phytogeographic area, b)
Brazilian plants that also occur in other Brazilian phytogeographic
areas, and c) exotic, from other countries all over the world. More
than half of the species used in the treatment of malaria are native
to the Amazonian phytogeographical area (58.7%; 27/46), includ-
ing four of the most cited species, 30.4% (14/46) are native to
Brazil, and 10.9% (5/46) are exotic species. This high number of
native species used can be explained by the excellent state of
conservation of the area, the great distance from the larger cities,
the difficulty of access, language barriers that hinder the entry of a
greater number of exotic plants, and the knowledge and experi-
ence of the use of native species by indigenous people. This factor
is even more important regarding the use of plants for a disease
such as malaria and considered "new.” It is the adaptation of local



Table 1
Plants used in the treatment of malaria. Local name: N (Nheengatu), T (Tukano), P (Portugues); Habit: T (tree), S (shrub), H (herbaceous), L (liana); Part used: R (root), B (bark), L (leaf), All (whole plant), S (seed), St (stem), E
(exudate), H (heart of palm), F (fruit); Preparation method and use form: D (decoction), I (infusion), B (bath), R (roasted), M (maceration), N (in natura), E (enema), ST (steam bath). Endemic species: ES.

Family Scientific name (voucher number) Local name Habit Part
used

Preparation method URa RFCb Origin

Annonaceae Annona mucosa Jacq. (11399) biribá (N) T R D/ 1 cup 3x a day for 7 days 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Annonaceae Guatteria guianensis (Aubl.) R.E.Fr. (11428) envira-verde (N/P) T B D/ 1 cup a day for 7 days 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Apocynaceae Aspidosperma schultesii Woodson (11402) carapanauba (N) kome yahpuri (T) T B D/ 1 cup 3x a day for adults and ¼ of a cup for children with sugar 80/330 0.89 Amazonia
Araceae Montrichardia arborescens (L.) Schott

(11414)
kahpó(T) S R D/1 cup 3x a day for adults, 1 spoon for children 3xa day 1/330 0.01 Brazil

Araceae Heteropsis tenuispadix G.S.Bunting (11419) cipó-titica (N/P) L St D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Arecaceae Euterpe catinga Wallace (11400) açaí-da- catinga(P) mihpi- tahtaboa-

kasé (T)
T R M/ 1 cup 3x a day 61/330 0.68 Amazonia

Arecaceae Euterpe precatoria Mart. (Nc) açaí- do- mato(P)nʉhkʉ mihpi (T) T R / H M/1 cup 3x a day 29/330 0.32 Amazonia
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. (Nc) coco (P) T F D/ with coconut water, as much as you want for 7 days 11/330 0.12 Exotic
Arecaceae Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. (Nc) inajá (N) ihki (T) T F R/ drink ashes with warm water 1 cup 3x a day for7 days 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Arecaceae Astrocaryum aculeatum G.Mey. (Nc) tucumã (N) behta (T) T F R/ drink ashes with warm water 1 cup 3x a day for 7 days 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Arecaceae Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz &Pav. (Nc) paxiuba (N/P) T L D/ ½ cup1x a Day and B. 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Asteraceae Rolandra fruticosa (L.) Kuntze (11405) mata – pasto (P) H All D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Asteraceae Unxia camphorataL.f. (11410) são – joão (P) H L I/ 1 cup 3x a day and B. 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Bromeliaceae Ananas sp. (Nc) abacaxi (N/P) H F I/ of the grated fruit, 1 cup 3 x a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. (Nc) urucum (N/P) mohsã (T) T R ST/ beneath the hammock, and D/for bath and drink 1 cup 3 a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Bignoniaceae Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D.Don (11416) pará-pará (N) T B D/½ cup 3x a day and put three drops in the ear and B. 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Bignoniaceae Tabebuia barbata (E.Mey.) Sandwith (11417) pau- de- arco (P) miraparaiwa

(N) bʉhpo origʉ(T)
T B D/ ½ cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil

Caricaceae Carica papaya L. (11423) mamoeiro (P) T R M/ with the root of E. precatoria3x a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Erythroxylaceae Erithroxylum coca Lam. (11403) ipadu (P) H L D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Euphorbiaceae Sagotia brachysepala (Müll.Arg.) Secco

(11401)
farinha – seca (P) T B D to bath at the time of fever 1/330 0.01 Amazonia

Euphorbiaceae Glycydendron amazonicum Ducke (11413) ka´su(T) S R/L D/ 1 cup 1x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia prostrata Aiton (11425) bacurau (N) H All D with the E. precatoria heart.1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Fabaceae Monopteryx uaucu Spruce ex Benth. (11404) vacú (N) simiõgʉ (T) T B D/ 1 cup take after malaria fever crisis and at bedtime 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Fabaceae Swartzia sp. 1 (11408) cabari – de- folha-pequena (P) T B D/ 1 cup 2x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Fabaceae Swartzia pictaBenth. (11407) cabari- de folha– grande (P) T B D/ 1 cup 2x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Fabaceae Swartzia argentea Spruce ex Benth. (11409) acuti –cabari (N) miõgʉ(T) T B D/ ½ cup3x a day 7/330 0.08 Amazonia
Fabaceae Deguelia amazonicaKillip (11415) timbó (N) L L ST/ 1 x a day at bedtime 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Fabaceae Ormosia discolor Spruce ex Benth. (Nc) piisikanaperi(?) T S D / 1spoon (2 ml)3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Fabaceae Libidibia ferrea (Mart. ex Tul.) L.P.Queiroz

(11427)
jucá (N) T B D/ 1 cup a day 1/330 0.01 Brazil

Fabaceae Phanera splendens (Kunth) Vaz (11429) escada- de- jabuti (P) L St/E D/ to bath 3x a day and N stem exudate Ad libitum 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Gentianaceae Tachia grandiflora Maguire & Weaver (Nc) canela- de- veado (P) yama puri (T) S R I/1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia ES
Lauraceae Persea americana Mill. (Nc) abacate (P) T L D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Exotic
Malphighiaceae Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V.

Morton (Nc)
cahpi(N, T) S B I/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia

Menispermaceae Abuta rufescensAubl. (11420) waudá(T) L B D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Menispermaceae Abuta grisebachii Triana& Planch. (11411) cipó- pacarão (?) mõmõda(T) L B D/ 1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Piperaceae Piper sp. (11421) coração (P) H R M/ D 3x a day for 7 days 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (Nc) capim-santo (P) H L I/Ad libitum 1/330 0.01 Exotic
Rhamnaceae Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke (11418) saracura-mirá (N/P) L R/B D or grating and stir the root in water to form a white foam which is

removed 4 to 7 times.1 cup 3x aday for 15 days
79/330 0.88 Amazonia

Rubiaceae Genipa americana L. (11406) jenipapo (N/P) diawé (T) T B D/Ad libitum 1/330 0.01 Brazil
Rubiaceae Sabicea amazonenses Wernham (11424) buiuiu (N) L R D/1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia
Rutaceae Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Nc) Laranja (P) T B D/1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Exotic
Rutaceae Citrus sp. (Nc) limão (P) T R D/1 cup 3x a day 1/330 0.01 Exotic
Sapotaceae Pouteria ucuqui Pires & R.E. Schult. (11412) ucuqui (N/P) puhpiágʉ (T) T B D/½ cup3x a day 1/330 0.01 Amazonia

C.W
.K

ffuri
et

al./
Journal

of
Ethnopharm

acology
178

(2016)
188

–198
191



Ta
b
le

1
(c
on

ti
nu

ed
)

Fa
m
il
y

Sc
ie
n
ti
fi
c
n
am

e
(v
ou

ch
er

n
u
m
b
er
)

Lo
ca

l
n
am

e
H
ab

it
P
ar
t

u
se
d

P
re
p
ar
at
io
n
m
et
h
o
d

U
R
a

R
FC

b
O
ri
gi
n

So
la
n
ac
ea

e
Ph

ys
al
is

an
gu

la
ta

L.
(1
14

26
)

ca
m
ap

u
(N

/P
)
p
ik
as
or
ó
(T
)

H
A
ll/

R
D

to
ba

th
at

th
e
ti
m
e
of

fe
ve

r
30

/3
30

0.
33

B
ra
zi
l

So
la
n
ac
ea

e
So

la
nu

m
cr
in
it
um

La
m
.(
11
42

2)
ju
ru
be

ba
(N

/P
)

H
R

D
/
To

cl
ea

n
th
e
in
te
st
in
al

co
n
te
n
ts

m
or
e
5
d
ay

s
an

d
ba

th
1/
33

0
0.
01

B
ra
zi
l

St
re
lit
zi
ac
ea

e
Ph

en
ak

os
pe

rm
um

gu
ia
ne

ns
is

(A
.R
ic
h
.)
En

d
l.

ex
M
iq
.(
11
42

8)
so
ro
ro
ca

(N
/P
)

S
E

N
/
A
d
lib

it
um

1/
33

0
0.
01

A
m
az
on

ia

a
N
u
m
be

r
of

sp
ec
ie

u
se

re
p
or
t
(U

R
).

b
Re

la
ti
ve

fr
eq

u
en

cy
of

ci
ta
ti
on

(R
FC

).

C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198192
flora to unknown diseases. On the other hand, it is interesting to
note that one of the characteristics of local flora is the high en-
demism, and only one endemic plant was cited as antimalarial,
Tachia grandiflora (Maguire and Weaver). The exotic species used
are also widely cultivated, edible plants (Cocos nucifera L., Persea
americana Mill.,Citrus spp., Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf), as
already observed by Bennett and Prance (2000).

Our study led to a total of 330 Use Reports (URs), but only seven
plant species account for 290 URs, showing a relatively high
consensus on a few plants, while the large majority of species (39/
46) are only cited once. The most consensual ones are Aspidos-
perma schultesiiWoodson (RFC¼0.89), Ampelozizyphus amazonicus
Ducke (RFC ¼ 0.88), Euterpe catinga Wallace (RFC ¼ 0.68), Physalis
angulata L. (RFC¼0.33), Euterpe precatoria Mart. (RFC ¼ 0.32),
Cocos nucifera L. (RFC¼0.12) and Swartzia argentea Spruce ex
Benth (RFC¼0.08). Excepting S.argentea and E.caatinga, the two
species restricted to the sandy soils of the area, the five others are
widely used in various regions of the Amazonia for the treatment
of malaria (Table 2). The consensus observed for these seven-
most-cited species might indicate the presence of some key phy-
tochemical ingredients in these plants. The wide range of species
cited may be, on the other hand, a consequence of the focus on a
particular disease, as observed in Odonne et al. (2011). Never-
theless, this fact might be explained by the cultural diversity or the
mosaic of environments influencing people’s knowledge. More-
over, informants say that some plants are only effective for certain
people, usually those sharing the same blood type or siblings.
Garnelo and Buchillet (2006) point out that therapeutic strategies,
such as the use of medicinal plants in the Upper Rio Negro Baniwa,
vary widely according to each patrisib and the distribution of re-
sidence microecosystems.

3.2.3. Plant parts
Among the plant parts, barks (34.0%; 17/50) and roots (28.0%;

14/50) were the most used, followed by leaves (14. 0%; 7/50), fruits
(8.0%; 4/50), whole plants (6.0%; 3/50), stems (4.3%; 2/50), exu-
dates (4.0%; 2/50), and seeds (2.0%; 1/50).

The barks are widely used fresh and dried in Amazonia. Ac-
cording to respondents, the roots of plants growing in chavascal
(permanently flooded vegetation) and igapó (seasonally flooded
forest) do not have much medicinal power because they are con-
stantly hydrated, which diluem o remédio (dilutes the medicine).
Roots (28.0%; 14/50) used in the preparation of medicines to treat
malaria are not as commonly used as leaves (Rodrigues, 2006;
Odonne et al., 2013).

3.2.4. Preparation methods and posology
Most preparations are made by decoction (57.4%; 31/54), fol-

lowed by bath (12.9%; 7/54), infusion (9.2%; 5/54), maceration
(7.4%; 4/54), roast until ashes (3.7%; 2/54), in natura (3.7%; 2/54),
steam bath (3.7%; 2/54), and enema (1.8; 1/54). The popularity of
decoction, also found by Milliken (1997), Brandão et al. (1992a),
and Vigneron et al. (2005), is probably due to the large number of
barks and roots, suggesting an Amazonian pattern. The bath is the
second-most-common form of preparation. For the bath, the en-
tire body from head to foot is doused with water at the time of
fever. In this study, as observed by Vigneron et al. (2005), or Houël
et al. (2015), all of the plants used in the bath are also adminis-
tered internally as tea. When this is done, the amount of tea
consumed daily is much less than if it were only used internally.
The only exception is Sagotia brachysepala (Müll.Arg.) Secco, for
which decoction of bark is used in baths only at the time of fever,
its intake being prohibited.

An enema is made with the decoction of Solanum crinitum Lam.
roots, which are placed into a syringe and applied to the anus with
the aim of clearing out the intestines. At the same time, the root



Table 2
Literature reports of traditional antimalarial uses and laboratory essays for the plants cited in the Upper Rio Negro region.

Species Ethnobotanical record in Pan- Amazonia Antimalarial activity Source

Abuta rufescens
(Menispermaceae)

Milliken (1997), Kvist et al. (2006), Roumy et
al. (2007), Ruiz et al. (2011)

Bark and leaves, in vitro, P.falciparum, IC50¼2.3 to 7.9 mg/mL. Roumy et al. (2007)
Bark, in vitro, P. falciparum (FCR3), 10 to 0.1 mg/ml, IC50 ¼5.9
and FBIT test 1.0 mg/ml.

Ruiz et al. (2011)

Ampelozizyphus amazoni-
cus (Rhamnaceae)

Santos et al. (2005), Luz (2001), Milliken (1997),
Scudeller et al. (2009), Santos et al. (2012), Ro-
drigues (2006), Brandão et al. (1992a),

Roots, in vitro and in vivo P. berghei (ANKA), 100 to 400 mg/
kg/day protection to mice from sporozoites, 100 and
50 mg/mL of extract inhibited in vitro P. berghei schizont
development. Prophylactic.

Andrade-Neto et
al. (2008)

Bark, in vivo P.chabaudi, 10 mg/kg oral dose, act as an
adaptogen by enhancing immune system function and could
mitigate the inflammatory disorders.

Peçanha et al. (2013)

Banisteriopsis caapi
(Malphighiaceae)

Ruiz et al. (2011) Leaves and stems, in vitro, P. falciparum (K1), 10 mg/mL. Gachet and
Schühly (2009)

Bark, in vitro, P. falciparum (FCR3) 10, to 0.1 mg/ml, inactive. Ruiz et al. (2011)
Bixa orellana (Bixaceae) Luz (2001), Brandão et al. (1992a), Milliken (1997),

Bertani et al. (2005).
Seeds, in vitro, P.falciparum (GHANA), in vivo P. berghei
(ANKA).the extract exhibited IC50 ¼11.6 m/mL, 500 mg/kg
dose caused parasitemia reduction of 50.3/5.8%.

Fernandez – Calienes
et al. (2010)

Carica papaya
(Caricaceae)

Brandão et al. (1992a), Milliken (1997), Ruiz et
al. (2011), Valadeau et al. (2009)

Rind and pulp, in vitro, P.falciparum (FCK2). The pet. ether
extract of the rind had the highest antimalarial activity of all
the extracts tested (IC50¼15.19 mg/mL).

Bhat and
Surolia (2001)

Seeds, in vivo, P. berghei 50 to 200 mg/kg/day, showed a
significant malaria parasitaemia suppressive activity
(Pr0.05).

Amazu et al. (2009)

Leaves, in vivo, P.berghei(NK65), 100 to 1000 mg/kg and in
combination with artesunic acid. Alone have a very good
activity, its combination with artesunic acid is antagonistic.

Onaku et al. (2001)

Pulp, in vitro, P.falciparum (MRC-2),125 to 1.9 mg/mL. Venkatesalu et al.,
(2012)

Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae) Milliken (1997) Fruit, in vitro, P. falciparum (FCK2) IC50¼51.1 (petroleum
esther) and 53.6 mg/mL (MeOH).

Bhat and Surolia
(2001)

Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae) � Flesh, in vivo P. berghei (NK65), 50 to 200 and 400 mg/kg,
reduces the parasitemia by the 200 and 400 mg/kg doses.

Al-Adhroey et
al. (2011)

Husk fiber, in vivo P. berghei (NK65), in vitro P. falciparum
(W2). Only ethyl acetate fraction was active against P. falci-
parum, IC50 ¼ 10.94 mg/ml. And active in mestiço type hex-
ane extract.

Adebayo et
al. (2012, 2013)

Cymbopogon citratus
(Poaceae)

Kvist et al. (2006), Ruiz et al. (2011), Odonne et
al. (2013), Rodrigues (2006).

Leaves, in vitro P. falciparum (F32), C.citratus, were found to
possess greater effects on the growth with 20 mg/ml giving
57.9%.

Bidla et al. (2004)

Leaves volatile oil, in vivo, 62–87% suppression of P. berghei,
200–500 mg/kg/day).

Tchoumbougnang et
al. (2005)

Leaves, 400 to 800 mg/kg, in vitro P. falciparum petroleum
ether, ethyl acetate and methanol showed IC50¼ 9.1, 12.1 and
15.9 mg/ml respectively and in vivo P. berghei (ANKA), 87.2%
inhibition of parasites.

Melariri et al. (2011)

Deguelia amazonica
(Fabaceae)

� Stembark,100 mg/kg up to 1 g/kg and in vitro P. falciparum
(Indo, F32 Tanzania). IC50¼3.2 (F32), 18 (Indo) mg/ml.

Muñoz et al. (2000)

Euterpe precatoria
(Arecaceae)

Kvist et al. (2006), Bertani et al. (2005), Hajdu and
Hohmann (2012), Ruiz et al (2011), Scudeller et
al. (2009).

Buttress root, in vitro P. falciparum (D2, F32) and in vivo P.
berghei. 100 up to 500 mg/kg.

Deharo et al. (2001)

Root, in vitro P. falciparum (3D7), IC50 ¼12 mM. Jensen et al. (2002)
Genipa americana
(Rubiaceae)

� Leaves, in vitro P. falciparum (D2, F32) and in vivo P. berghei.
100 up to 500 mg/kg.

Deharo et al. (2001)

Iriartea deltoidea
(Arecaceae)

� Leaves, in vivo, P. berghei (NK65), 0.2 ml, IC50 ¼12 mg/ml. Chinchilla-Carmona et
al. (2011)

Jacaranda copaia
(Bignoniaceae)

Valadeau et al. (2009), Cavalcante and Frikel (1973)
(fever).

Leaves, in vitro P. falciparum (FCR3),IC50¼8.1–1.5 mg/ml. Valadeau et al. (2009)

Persea americana
(Lauraceae)

Milliken (1997), Coelho-Ferreira (2009), Ruiz et
al. (2011).

Bark and leaves, in vitro, P. falciparum (FCR3) 10,5,1 and
0.1 mg/ml IC50410 mg/ml. IC50FBIT test410 mg/ml.

Ruiz et al. (2011)

Phanera splendens
(Fabaceae)

Albert and Milliken, (2009). Stembark, in vivo against P. berghei (NK65) and P. vinckei
(279BY), 100 mg/kg up to 1 g/kg and in vitro P. falciparum
(Indo, F32 Tanzania). IC50¼ 4100 (F32), 28 (Indo) mg/ml,
toxic (P. vinckei).

Muñoz et al. (2000)

Physalis angulata
(Solanaceae)

Rodrigues (2006), Milliken (1997), Odonne et
al. (2013), Kvist et al. (2006), Ruiz et al. (2011).

Whole plant, in vitro P. falciparum (FcB1),10 mg/ml, IC50

¼7.9–0.7 mg/ml.
Zirihi et al. (2005)

Shoot, in vitro, P. falciparum (3D7), 100 to 12 mg/ml. Kvist et al. (2006)
Whole plant, in vitro P.falciparum (3D7, W2) from 200 to
0.09 mg/ml, and in vivo P.berghei berghei 300 mg/kg.

Lusakibanza et
al. (2010)

in vitro P. falciparum(W2) IC50¼2.2–55 mM . Sa et al. (2011),
Whole plant, in vitro P. falciparum (FCR3), 10,5,1 and 0.1 mg/
ml IC50 ¼6.6 and FBIT test 410 mg/ml.

Ruiz et al. (2011)

Tachia grandiflora
(Gentianaceae)

Brandão et al. (1992a), Milliken (1997), Schultes and
Raffauf (1990).

In vivo P. berghei, 100 to 1000 mg/kg/day. Inhibited 40% of
parasites.

Carvalho and
Krettli (1991)

C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198 193



Table 2 (continued )

Species Ethnobotanical record in Pan- Amazonia Antimalarial activity Source

Leaves and roots, in vitro P.falciparum (K1, W2), and in vivo P.
berghei (NK65) 500 mg/kg/Day. Crude extracts were inactive
in vitro, chloroform root and leaves IC50¼10.5–35.8 mg/ml
respectively and amplexine IC50¼7.1 mg/ml are active in
vitro.

Silva et al. (2013)

C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198194
decoction is used in baths at the time of fever. The use of enemas is
currently not very well documented in the Brazilian Amazonia.

A suador (steam bath) is made from the roots of Bixa orellana L.
or leaves of D.amazonica, which are burned below the hammock of
the patient, who is covered under a blanket.

Only two preparations are made from a mixture of plants:
maceration of Carica papaya L. with E. precatoria roots and the
decoction of Euphorbia prostrata Aiton with the palm of E. pre-
catoria. Interestingly, all the mixtures cited include parts of E.
precatoria in their preparations, suggesting a possible synergistic
effect. According to Rasoanaivo et al. (2011), there is evidence for
different types of positive interactions between components of
medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria. This species is
often quoted in the literature for its use as an antimalarial in tra-
ditional medicine, but the laboratory work is inconclusive and only
points to moderate antiplasmodial activity (Jensen et al., 2002).
Albert and Milliken (2009) argue that most plants in Amerindian
herbal medicine of Amazonia are used separately, and this seems
to be a common pattern.

Concerning the posology, quantities may vary from half a cup
(125 mL) to three cups (750 mL), but are always drunk three times
a day. According to the interviewees, they are taken at a similar
frequency as the antimalarial tablets, which seems to represent a
hybrid of biomedical and traditional medicinal concepts. A re-
ported problem regarding the dose is caused by the disappearance
of symptoms in the second or third day of treatment, which makes
patients feel they are cured. They no longer take the remedy,
which increases the parasitaemia and subsequent symptoms.

Only one species, A. amazonicus, is used as a malaria preventive.
Indigenous health workers prepare and distribute it to the community,
not only as a malaria preventive, but also as a tonic and aphrodisiac.

3.3. Antimalarial activity and phytochemistry, a bibliographic review

After the literature review, the plants were divided into four
categories.

Of the 46 species cited, 18 (39.1%; 18/46) have already been
studied for their antimalarial properties according to the literature
detailed in Table 2, and 26 species (56.5%; 26/46) have no la-
boratory essays about their antimalarial activity. The literature
suggests antimalarial activity of different species in the same
genus for 19 of our plants (41.3%; 19/46). Finally, no positive results
against malaria parasites were found for two species (4.3% 2/46).
The two species that have been identified at genus level only
(Swartzia sp. and Piper sp.) were not included on that list.

3.3.1. Pharmacological and phytochemical data of the consensual
antimalarial species

In the following section, we provide an in-depth phytochemical
and pharmacological review of the seven consensual species cited
in the Upper Rio Negro region.

3.3.1.1. Aspidosperma schultesii (RFC¼0.89). From the interviewees'
points of view, bark has two different characteristics: color, white
or yellow, and the environment in which it occurs. In Igapó, the
bark is thinner and thought to be of lower quality because when
the tree is submerged, water “dilutes the medicine.” Upland, the
bark is a little thicker and has a “good amount of medicine,” the
best quality with a thicker skin and “a larger amount of medicine”
located on the mountaintop. Participants compare this species
with chloroquine, primaquine and dipyrone because to them, the
bitter taste is the same. Several species of Aspidosperma are cited
in the literature for the treatment of malaria: A. macrocarpon Mart.
(Mesquita et al., 2007), A. excelsum Benth., A. rigidum Rusby (Kvist
et al., 2006), and A. nitidum Benth. ex Müll.Arg. (Ruiz et al., 2011).
A. nitidum seems to be the most cited antimalarial species (Luz,
2001; Milliken and Albert, 1997; Brandão et al., 1992a; Scudeller
et al., 2009; Milliken, 1997). A. excelsum and A. marcgravianum are
less cited (Rodrigues, 2006; Santos et al., 2012; Milliken, 1997).
Interestingly, the two A. excelsum and A. nitidum are now con-
sidered synonyms, A. excelsum being the accepted name (http://
www.tropicos.org/). An unidentified Aspidosperma is used as an
antimalarial in the neighboring region of Barcelos (Silva et al.,
2007). A.rigidum is used to treat fever by the Indians of the Boli-
vian Amazonia (Hajdu and Hohmann, 2012).

The Aspidosperma genus is characterized by the occurrence of in-
dole alkaloids, often considered chemical markers of the genus (Nunes
et al., 1980). Several studies highlight the antimalarial activity of As-
pidosperma genus (Torres et al., 2013; Henrique et al., 2010; Oliveira
et al., 2010; Andrade-Neto et al., 2007; Dolabela et al., 2012), and
antiplasmodial effects of Aspidosperma species are related to the pre-
sence of these alkaloids (Mitaine et al., 1996; Pereira et al., 2007).
Three alkaloids (fendlerina, aspidoalbina and aspidolimidina) were
isolated from the bark of A. megalocarpon and showed strong anti-
malarial activity in vitro (Mitaine et al., 1998), and according to Mi-
taine-Offer et al. (2002) various alkaloids of Aspidosperma are rea-
sonable antiplasmodial agents. The study of A.schultesii bark extract by
Reina et al. (2011) showed the presence of three alkaloids, and Mesía
et al. (2012) later noted the presence of seven alkaloids.

3.3.1.2. Ampelozizyphus amazonicus (RFC¼ 0.88). It is used as both
a preventive and curative medicine. According to the survey par-
ticipants, there are two forms of A. amazonicus, a male and a fe-
male. In some communities, the male can only be used by men for
the treatment of malaria, while the female can only be used by
women. The difference lies in the root morphology. The male
saracura has a root without secondary roots, whereas the female
has secondary roots. The participants noted that the root of male
saracura looks like a male phallus, and the root of the female
saracura looks like a woman's pubic hair. They are used for energy
and as preventive remedies for other diseases besides malaria.

Saponins have been isolated from their roots, also triterpenes
melaleucic acid, betulinic acid, betulin and lupeol (Brandão et al.,
1992b; Brandão et al., 1993). Ursolic acid, five lupane type tri-
terpenes: betulin, betulinic acid, lupenone, 3ß-hydroxylup-20(29)-
ene-27,28-dioic acid, and 2α,3ß-dihydroxylup-20(29)-ene-27,28-
dioic acid, and three phytosteroids: stigmasterol, sitosterol and
campesterol, have been isolated from stem extracts of A. amazo-
nicus (Rosas et al., 2007). Silva et al. (2009) showed the presence of
approximately 48% saponins in an aqueous extract from the roots

http://www.tropicos.org/
http://www.tropicos.org/


C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198 195
of the plant and high iron levels in vegetative organs of A. ama-
zonicus, including the root bark.

As A. amazonicus showed no antimalarial activity (Brandão
et al., 1985; Carvalho et al., 1991; Krettli et al., 2001), it was first
supposed that its use might be related to a possible adaptogen and
immunostimulant activity, given the presence of saponins and
betulinic acid (Oliveira et al., 2011; Brandão et al., 1992b; Brandão
et al., 1993). Nevertheless, Andrade- Neto et al.(2008) highlighted
a good preventive use on chickens infected by Plasmodium galli-
naceum and showed that an ethanol extract of the plant hampered
in vitro and in vivo the development of P. berghei sporozoites in
mice. They also proved a reduction in the number of infected liver
cells and a smaller number of schizonts cells than in untreated
mice. As the sporozoites are the form of contagion of the Plas-
modium, this result confirmed the prophylactic activity of A.
amazonicus. Possible interactions occur between saponins from
‘‘Indian beer” in: (i) the malaria primary liver forms, or (ii) the
parasitophorous vacuole membrane, with consequent parasite
destruction. Recently, the immunomodulatory and anti-in-
flammatory activities of an A. amazonicus extract was successfully
explored (Peçanha et al., 2013). This work highlighted an increase
in total serum IgM and IgG and a decrease in the percentage of
splenic plasma cells (CD138þ cells) in Plasmodium chabaudi-in-
fected mice treated by A. amazonicus.

3.3.1.3. Euterpe catinga (RFC¼ 0.68) and Euterpe precatoria (RFC¼
0.32). According to informants, E.caatinga differs from other açaí
(Euterpe spp.) in its smaller and darker fruits and reddish petiole.
E. precatoria and E. oleracea Mart. are often cited for their anti-
malarial use (Brandão et al., 1992a; Kvist et al., 2006; Ruiz et al.,
2011). Although these species occur in the region, preference is
given to the local E. caatinga. According to Mesa and Galeano
(2013), the roots of E.caatinga are indicated as an antimalarial by
the Tikuna Indians of Colombia. There are neither phytochemical
studies of this species nor tests of their antimalarial activity, but
some other species of the genus (mainly E.precatoria) have been
studied further. E. precatoria is mainly used in mixtures. Its roots
are macerated with C.papaya’s roots, or a piece of palm is cooked
with E.prostrata. This plant is the most cited antimalarial in the
Peruvian Amazonia, (Kvist et al., 2006) and is generally used in
other parts of Amazonia (Bertani et al., 2005; Ruiz et al., 2011;
Scudeller et al., 2009). Despite the intensive antimalarial use of E.
precatoria roots in traditional medicine, only one study finds
moderate antiplasmodial activity for lignan isolated from its roots
(Jensen et al., 2002). Root, stem and leaf stalk of E. precatoria re-
vealed the presence of cytotoxic triterpenes, sterols, lignans, fla-
vonoids, coumarins, phenols and also p-hydroxybenzoic acid, cy-
totoxic triterpenes, and steroids (Harborne et al., 1994; Galotta and
Boaventura, 2005; Galotta et al., 2008; Solis et al., 2010). The root
shows a high concentration of phenolic compounds compared to
the tea and wine (Solis et al., 2010) and high anti-free-radical
potential on the root and petiole (Galotta et al., 2008).

3.3.1.4. Physalis angulata (RFC¼ 0.33). P. angulata is a widely used
antimalarial in Amazonia (Rodrigues, 2006; Milliken, 1997;
Odonne et al., 2013; Kvist et al., 2006; Ruiz et al., 2011). A review of
molecules isolated from P. angulata is available (Rengifo and Var-
gas, 2013), citing notably flavonoids, tannins, terpenes and phe-
nolic acids, alkaloids as physalins and whitanolides (Rengifo and
Vargas, 2013; Lusakibanza et al., 2010). The methanol extract of P.
angulata leaves demonstrated high activity against chloroquine-
resistant and sensitive P.falciparum strains. Also, leaves of the
aqueous and methanolic extract showed good inhibition of para-
sitaemia in vivo in mice infected by Plasmodium berghei (Lusaki-
banza et al., 2010; Ruiz et al., 2011; Ankrah et al., 2003). The an-
timalarial activity of isolated physalins from P.angulata was
investigated against chloroquine-resistant P.falciparum strains and
show increased parasitemia and mortality in mice infected with P.
berghei, whereas physalin 2 caused a reduction in parasitaemia.
The exacerbation of infection in vivo treatment with physalin 3 is
probably due to its potent immunosuppressive activity, which is
not evident in physalin 2 (Sa et al., 2011). However, two studies
found contradictory results, with weak or no antimalarial activity
(Kvist et al., 2006; Zirihi et al., 2005).

3.3.1.5. Cocos nucifera (RFC¼ 0.12). Coconut used to treat malaria is
broken in half and placed in a pot with its water until boiling, and
the bitter liquid is drunk for seven days. The coconut fiber, com-
posed mainly of lignin and cellulose, is similar in chemical com-
position to wood. It is also a source of chemical compounds, par-
ticularly phenolic compounds. During the boiling process, organic
substances such as pectin, tannins, and phenols are probably re-
leased into the water. The use of coconut fiber seems non-toxic for
oral use (Alviano et al., 2004; Al-Adhroey et al., 2011). These re-
sults are consistent with those observed in popular use, during
which the occurrence of adverse effects is unusual. Antiplasmodial
activity is reported for the main polyphenolic components, parti-
cularly catechins (Al-Adhroey et al., 2011; Adebayo et al., 2012,
2013). Adebayo et al. (2012) showed a total absence of antimalarial
activity in most of the tested varieties of C. nucifera and suggests
that the popular use of the plant as a medicine should be restricted
to the "right type.” The in-vitro evaluation of coconut fiber in
antiplasmodial activity revealed that only the ethyl acetate frac-
tion of the extract was active against P.falciparum, that the phy-
tochemicals present in this fraction are alkaloids, tannins and
flavonoids, and that there is no hepatotoxic potential nor predis-
position to cardiovascular disease (Adebayo et al., 2013). The me-
socarp extract of C. nuciferawas evaluated in vivo against P. berghei,
reducing significantly the parasitaemia, but not the survival time
of infected mice (Al-Adhroey et al., 2011).

3.3.1.6. Swartzia argentea (RFC¼ 0.08). In the chemical analysis of
S.argentea, eight metabolite classes were found within barks: ca-
techin, flavanone, flavononol, condensed tannin, anthraquinone,
resins and saponin (Barbosa et al., 2006). There was no work on
the antimalarial activity of this species.
4. Conclusion

Local traditional knowledge of antimalarial plants is still
widespread in indigenous communities of Upper Rio Negro,
probably because of the high incidence of malaria in the region,
the accessibility of the plants, and the difficulty of and delay in
accessing the medicines distributed by the government. Forty-six
plants species were identified, of which seven species present a
good level of consensus, and among them, A. schultesii, E. catinga,
E. precatoria and S. argentea have few or no studies dealing with
their antimalarial activity. According to Krettli et al. (2001), the
possibility of finding active molecules against plasmodium on se-
lected plants through traditional knowledge is almost 2000%
higher than that of randomly selected ones, and this paper refer-
ences 26 plants that do not have any studies of their antimalarial
activity. Our studies highlight the following species: Glycidendron
amazonicum, Heteropsis tenuispadix, Monopteryx uaucu, Phenakos-
permum guianensis, Pouteria ucuqui, Sagotia brachysepala as inter-
esting plants for future studies, because they are Amazonian
species of widespread use but no studies. For 18 plant species, the
traditional uses have been validated by phytochemical and mod-
ern pharmacological studies. Experimental validation of these re-
medies may help in developing new drugs for malaria and may
eventually lead to more widespread use of traditional medicines in



C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198196
local and cheaper health care systems that take into account the
cultural aspects of disease healing. More than half of plants (58.7%)
traditionally used against malaria are Amazonian native species,
which highlights the importance of environmental protection and
the territorial rights of indigenous people to ensure the supply of
medicines.
Acknowledgments

We thank the CNPq (National Council for Scientific and Tech-
nological Development) (555.669/2009-2), Capes/CsF (Coordina-
tion for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel/Program
Science without Borders) (201062/2012-7 author grant) and FA-
PESP (São Paulo Research Foundation) (2009/53638-7) for fi-
nancial support. We are also grateful to IFAM – Campus São
Gabriel da Cachoeira for logistical support and Foundation of Up-
per Rio Negro Indigenous Organizations (FOIRN).
References

Adebayo, J.O., Santana, A.E.G., Krettli, A.U., 2012. Evaluation of the antiplasmodial
and cytotoxicity potentials of husk fiber extracts from Cocos nucifera, a med-
icinal plant used in Nigeria to treat human malaria. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 31 (3),
244–249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327111424298.

Adebayo, J.O., Balogun, E.A., Malomo, S.O., Soladoye, A.O., Olatunji, L.A., Kolawole, O.
M., Oguntoye, O.S., Babatunde, A.S., Akinola, O.B., Aguiar, A.C.C., Andrade, I.M.,
Souza, N.B., Krettli, A.U., 2013. Antimalarial activity of Cocos nucifera husk fibre:
further studies. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med., 2013. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1155/2013/742476.

Al-Adhroey, A.H., Nor, Z.M., Al-Mekhlafi, H.M., Amran, A.A., Mahmud, R., 2011.
Evaluation of the use of Cocos nucifera as antimalarial remedy in Malaysian folk
medicine. J. Ethnopharmacol. 134 (3), 988–991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2011.01.026.

Albert, B., Milliken, W., 2009. Urihi -a: a terra-floresta Yanomami, first ed. Instituto
Socioambiental, São Paulo.

Alviano, D.S., Rodrigues, K.F., Leitão, S.G., Rodrigues, M.L., Matheus, M.E., Fernandes,
P.D., Antoniolli, A.R., Alviano, C.S., 2004. Antinociceptive and free radical
scavenging activities of Cocos nucifera L.(Palmae)husk fiber aqueous extract. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 92 (2), 269–273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.013.

Amazu, L.U., Ebong, O.O., Azikiwe, C.C.A., Unekwe, P.C., Siminialayi, M.I., Nwosu, P.J.
C., Ezeani, M.C., Obidiya, O.S., Ajugwo, A.O., 2009. Effects of the methanolic
seeds extract of Carica papaya on Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Asian Pac.
J. Trop. Med. 2 (3), 1–6.

Andrade-Neto, V.F., Pohlit, A.M., Pinto, A.C.S., Silva, E.C.C., Nogueira, K.L., Melo, M.R.,
Henrique, M.C., Amorim, R.C.N., Silva, L.F.R., Costa, M.R.F., Nunomura, R.C.S.,
Nunomura, S.M., Alecrim, W.D., Alecrim, M.G.C., Chaves, F.C.M., Vieira, P.P.R.,
2007. In vitro inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum by substances isolated from
Amazonian antimalarial plants. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 102 (3), 359–366.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762007000300016.

Andrade-Neto, V.F., Brandão, M.G.L., Nogueira, F., Rosário, V.E., Krettli, A.U., 2008.
Ampelozyziphus amazonicus Ducke (Rhamnaceae), a medicinal plant used to
prevent malaria in the Amazon Region, hampers the development of Plasmo-
dium bergheisporozoites. Int. J. Parasitol. 38 (13), 1505–1511. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.05.007.

Ankrah, N.A., Nyarko, A.K., Addo, P.G., Ofosuhene, M., Dzokoto, C., Marley, E., Addae,
M.M., Ekuban, F.A., 2003. Evaluation of efficacy and safety of a herbal medicine
used for the treatment of malaria. Phytother. Res. 17 (6), 697–701. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1002/ptr.1196.

Barbosa, A.P., Palmeira, R.C.F., Nascimento, C.S., Feitosa, D.S., Cunha, M.S.C., 2006.
Leguminosas Florestais da Amazônia Central: I. Prospecção de compostos
presentes na casca de espécies arbóreas. Rev. Fitos 1 (3), 47–57.

Bhat, G.P., Surolia, N., 2001. In vitro antimalarial activity of extracts of three plants
used in the traditional medicine of India. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 65 (4),
304–308.

Bennett, B.C., Prance, G.T., 2000. Introduced plants in the indigenous pharmaco-
poeia of Northern South America. Econ. Bot. 54 (1), 90–102.

Bertani, S., Bourdy, G., Landau, I., Robinson, J.C., Esterre, P., Deharo, E., 2005. Eva-
luation of French Guiana traditional antimalarial remedies. J. Ethnopharmacol.
98 (1), 45–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.020.

Bidla, G., Titanji, V., Joko, B., Ghazali, G., Bolad, A., Berzins, K., 2004. Antiplasmodial
activity of seven plants used in African folk medicine. Indian J. Pharmacol. 36
(4), 245.

Brandão, M.D.G.L., Botelho, M.D.G.A., Krettli, A.U., 1985. Quimioterapia experi-
mental antimalárica com produtos naturais: I. Uma abordagem mais racional?
Ciênc. Cult. 37 (7), 1152–1163.

Brandão, M.G.L., Grandi, T.S.M., Rocha, E.M.M., Sawyer, D.R., Krettli, A.U., 1992a.
Survey of medicinal plants used as antimalarials in the Amazon. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 36 (2), 175–182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)
90018-M.

Brandão, M.G.L., Lacaille-Dubois, M.A., Teixera, M.A., Wagner, H., 1992b. Triterpene
saponins from the roots of Ampelozizyphus amazonicus. Phytochemistry 31 (1),
352–354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)83076-W.

Brandão, M.G., Lacaille-Dubois, M.A., Teixeira, M.A., Wagner, H., 1993. A dammar-
ane-type saponin from the roots of Ampelozizyphus amazonicus. Phytochem-
istry 34 (4), 1123–1127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90728-3.

Buchillet, D., 1995. Perles de verre, parures de Blancs et « pots de paludisme ». Epi-
démiologie et représentations desana des maladies infectieuses (Haut Rio Negro,
Brésil). J. Soc. Am 81 (1), 181–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/jsa.1995.1588.

Cabalzar, A., Ricardo, C.A. 2006. Mapa-livro povos indígenas do Rio Negro. São
Paulo: ISA-Foirn.

Cabral, A.C., Fé, N.F., Suárez-Mutis, M.C., Bóia, M.N., Carvalho-Costa, F.A., 2010. In-
creasing incidence of malaria in the Negro River basin, Brazilian Amazon. Trans.
R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 104 (8), 556–562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
trstmh.2010.03.008.

Carvalho, L.H., Krettli, A.U., 1991. Antimalarial chemotherapy with natural products
and chemically defined molecules. Memó. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 86, 181–184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02761991000600041.

Carvalho, L.H., Brandão, M.G., Santos-Filho, D., Lopes, J.L., Krettli, A.U., 1991. Anti-
malarial activity of crude extracts from Brazilian plants studied in vivo in
Plasmodium berghei-infected mice and in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum
in culture. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 24 (11), 1113–1123.

Cavalcante, P.B., Frikel, P., 1973. A Famacopéia Tiriyó: estudo étno-botânico, first ed.
Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.

Chinchilla-Carmona, M., Valerio-Campos, I., Sanchez-Porras, R., Mora-Chaves, V.,
Bagnarello-Madrigal, V., Martinez-Esquivel, L., Gonzalez-Paniagua, A., Vanegas,
J.C., 2011. Evaluación in vivo de la actividad antimalárica de 25 plantas pro-
venientes de una Reserva de Conservación Biológica de Costa Rica. Rev. Chil.
Hist. Nat. 84 (1), 115–123. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/
S0716-078X2011000100009.

Coelho-Ferreira, M., 2009. Medicinal knowledge and plant utilization in an Ama-
zonian coastal community of Marudá, Pará State (Brazil). J. Ethnopharmacol.
126 (1), 159–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.07.016.

Deharo, E., Bourdy, G., Quenevo, C., Munoz, V., Ruiz, G., Sauvain, M., 2001. A search
for natural bioactive compounds in Bolivia through a multidisciplinary ap-
proach. Part V. Evaluation of the antimalarial activity of plants used by the
Tacana Indians. J. Ethnopharmacol. 77 (1), 91–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0378-8741(01)00270-7.

Dolabela, M.F., Oliveira, S.G., Peres, J.M., Nascimento, J., Póvoa, M.M., Oliveira, A.B.,
2012. In vitro antimalarial activity of six Aspidosperma species from the state of
Minas Gerais (Brazil). An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 84 (4), 899–910. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1590/S0001-37652012000400005.

Fernández-Calienes, V.A., Mendiola, M.J., Acuña, R.D., Scull, L.R., Gutiérrez, G.Y.,
2010. Antimalarial activity of hydroalcoholic extract from Bixa orellana L. Rev.
Cubana Med. Trop. 63 (2), 181–185.

Freire, J.R.B. (2004).Rio Babel – a história social das línguas na Amazônia, first ed.
EDURJ, Rio de Janeiro.

Gachet, M.S., Schühly, W., 2009. Jacaranda—an ethnopharmacological and phyto-
chemical review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 121 (1), 14–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2008.10.015.

Galotta, A.L.Q.A., Boaventura, M.A.D., 2005. Chemical constituents from roots and
leaf stalks of açaí (Euterpe precatoria Mart., Arecaceae). Quím. Nova 28 (4),
610–613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028.

Galotta, A.L.Q.A., Boaventura, M.A.D., Lima, L.A., 2008. Antioxidant and cytotoxic
activities ofaçaí(Euterpe precatoria Mart.). Quím. Nova 31 (6), 1427–1430. http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028.

Garnelo, L., Buchillet, D., 2006. Taxonomias das doenças entre os índios Baniwa
(arawak) e desana (tukano oriental) do alto rio negro (Brasil). Horiz. Antropol.
12 (26), 231–260.

Hajdu, Z., Hohmann, J., 2012. An ethnopharmacological survey of the traditional
medicine utilized in the community of Porvenir, Bajo Paraguá Indian Reserva-
tion, Bolivia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 139 (3), 838–857. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2011.12.029.

Harborne, J.B., Saito, N., Detoni, C.H., 1994. Anthocyanins of Cephaelis, Cynomor-
ium, Euterpe, Lavatera and Pinanga. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 22 (8), 835–836. http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(94)90088-4.

Henrique, M.C., Nunomura, S.M., Pohlit, A.M., 2010. Indole alkaloids from the bark
of Aspidosperma vargasii and A. desmanthum. Quím. Nova 33 (2), 284–287.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422010000200010.

Houël, E., Fleury, M., Odonne, G., Nardella, F., Bourdy, G., Vonthron-Sénécheau, C.,
Villa, P., Obrecht, A., Eparvier, V., Deharo, E., Stien, D., 2015. Antiplasmodial and
anti-inflammatory effects of an antimalarial remedy from the Wayana Amer-
indians, French Guiana: Takamalaimë (Psidiumacutangulum Mart. ex DC.,Myr-
taceae). J. Ethnopharmacol. 166, 279–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2015.03.015.

Jensen, J.F., Kvist, L.P., Christensen, S.B., 2002. An Antiplasmodial Lignan from Eu-
terpe precatoria. J. Nat. Prod. 65 (12), 1915–1917. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/
np020264u.

Krettli, A.U., Andrade-Neto, V.F., Brandão, M.D.G.L., Ferrari, W., 2001. The search for
new antimalarial drugs from plants used to treat fever and malaria or plants
randomly selected: a review. Mem Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 96 (8), 1033–1042. http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762001000800002.

Kvist, L.P., Christensen, S.B., Rasmussen, H.B., Mejia, K., Gonzalez, A., 2006. Identi-
fication and evaluation of Peruvian plants used to treat malaria and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327111424298
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327111424298
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327111424298
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/742476
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/742476
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/742476
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/742476
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.026
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.026
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.026
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.026
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref4
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.013
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref6
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref6
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref6
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref6
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref6
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762007000300016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762007000300016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762007000300016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.05.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.05.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.05.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.05.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1196
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1196
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1196
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1196
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref10
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref10
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref10
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref10
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref11
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref11
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref11
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref11
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref12
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref12
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref12
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.020
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref14
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref14
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref14
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref15
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref15
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref15
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref15
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90018-M
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90018-M
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90018-M
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90018-M
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)83076-W
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)83076-W
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)83076-W
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90728-3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90728-3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90728-3
http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/jsa.1995.1588
http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/jsa.1995.1588
http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/jsa.1995.1588
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.03.008
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.03.008
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.03.008
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.03.008
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02761991000600041
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02761991000600041
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02761991000600041
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref22
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref22
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref22
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref22
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref22
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref23
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref23
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0716-078X2011000100009
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0716-078X2011000100009
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0716-078X2011000100009
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0716-078X2011000100009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.07.016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.07.016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.07.016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00270-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00270-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00270-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00270-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652012000400005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652012000400005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652012000400005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652012000400005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref28
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref28
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref28
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref28
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422008000600028
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref32
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref32
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref32
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref32
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.029
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.029
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.029
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.029
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(94)90088-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(94)90088-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(94)90088-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(94)90088-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422010000200010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422010000200010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422010000200010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np020264u
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np020264u
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np020264u
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np020264u
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762001000800002
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762001000800002
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762001000800002
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762001000800002


C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198 197
leishmaniasis. J. Ethnopharmacol. 106 (3), 390–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2006.01.020.

Luz, F.J.F., 2001. Plantas medicinais de uso popular em Boa Vista, Roraima, Brasil.
Hortic. Bras. 19 (1), 88–96.

Lusakibanza, M., Mesia, G., Tona, G., Karemere, S., Lukuka, A., Tits, M., Angenot., L.,
Frederich, M., 2010. In vitro and in vivo antimalarial and cytotoxic activity of
five plants used in congolese traditional medicine. J. Ethnopharmacol. 129 (3),
398–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007.

Melariri, P., Campbell, W., Etusim, P., Smith, P., 2011. In vitro and in vivo anti-
plasmodial activities of extracts of Cymbopogon citratus Staph and Vernonia
amygdalina Delile leaves. J. Nat. Prod. 4, 164–172.

Mesa, L., Galeano, G., 2013. Usos de las palmas en la Amazonia Colombiana. Caldasia
35 (2), 351–369.

Mesía, L.R., Mesía, W.R., Rios, J.M.R., Atiles, M.R., Coloma, A.G., Alberto, R., 2012.
Búsqueda de principios activos antiparasitarios en plantas de uso tradicional de
la amazonia peruana. Especial énfasis en alcaloides indólicos. Cienc. Amazon.
(Iquitos) 2 (2), 116–123.

Mesquita, M.L., Grellier, P., Mambu, L., De Paula, J.E., Espindola, L.S., 2007. In vitro
antiplasmodial activity of Brazilian Cerrado plants used as traditional remedies.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 110 (1), 165–170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2006.09.015.

Milliken, W., Albert, B., 1996. The use of medicinal plants by the Yanomami Indians
of Brazil. Econ. Bot. 50 (1), 10–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02862108.

Milliken W. and Albert B. 1997. The use of medicinal plants by the Yanomami In-
dians of Brazil, Part II. Econ Bot 51: 264-278.

Milliken, W., 1997. Traditional anti-malarial medicine in Roraima, Brazil. Econ. Bot.
51 (3), 212–237.

Ministry of Health. 2013. Ministério da Saúde, Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde.
Boletim Epidemiológico de Malária (Internet). Brasília: Secretaria de Vigilância
em Saúde. Ministério da Saúde; 2013. Available at: 〈http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/
bvs/periodicos/boletim_epidemiologico_numero_1_2013.pdf〉.

Mitaine, A.C., Mesbah, K., Richard, B., Petermann, C., Arrazola, S., Moretti, C., Zechés-
Hanrot, M., Men-Olivier, L.L., 1996. Alkaloids from Aspidosperma species from
Bolivia. Planta Med. 62 (5), 458–461.

Mitaine, A.C., Weninger, B., Sauvain, M., Lucumi, E., Aragón, R., Zechés-Hanrot, M.,
1998. Indole alkaloid from the trunk bark of Aspidosperma megalocarpon. Planta
Med. 64, 487. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957496.

Mitaine-Offer, A.C., Sauvain, M., Valentin, A., Callapa, J., Mallié, M., Zèches-Hanrot,
M., 2002. Antiplasmodial activity of Aspidosperma indole alkaloids. Phytome-
dicine 9 (2), 142–145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00094.

Muñoz, V., Sauvain, M., Bourdy, G., Arrázola, S., Callapa, J., Ruiz, G., Choque, J., De-
haro, E., 2000. A search for natural bioactive compounds in Bolivia through a
multidisciplinary approach: Part III. Evaluation of the antimalarial activity of
plants used by Alteños Indians. J. Ethnopharmacol. 71 (1), 123–131. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00191-9.

Nunes, D.S., Koike, L., Reis, F., de, A.M., Taveira, J.J., 1980. New indol alkaloids from
Aspidosperma pruinosum. Cienc. Cult. 32 (7), 466.

Odonne, G., Valadeau, C., Alban-Castillo, J., Stien, D., Sauvain, M., Bourdy, G., 2013.
Medical ethnobotany of the Chayahuita of the Paranapura basin (Peruvian
Amazon). J. Ethnopharmacol. 146 (1), 127–153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2012.12.014.

Odonne, G., Berger, F., Stien, D., Grenand, P., Bourdy, G., 2011. Treatment of leish-
maniasis in the Oyapock basin (French Guiana): A K.A.P. survey and analysis of
the evolution of phytotherapy knowledge amongst Wayãpi Indians. J. Ethno-
pharmacol. 137; , pp. 1228–1239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.044.

Oliveira, A.A., Nelson, B.W., 2001. Floristic relationships of terra firme forests in the
Brazilian Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 146 (1), 169–179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0378-1127(00)00458-8.

Oliveira, F.Q., Junqueira, R.G., Stehmann, J.R., Brandão, M.G.L., 2003. Potencial das
plantas medicinais como fonte de novos antimaláricos: espécies indicadas na
bibliografia etnomédica brasileira. Rev. Bras. Plantas Med. 5 (2), 23–31.

Oliveira, A.B., Dolabela, M.F., Póvoa, M.M., Santos, C.A.M., de Pilla Varotti, F., 2010.
Antimalarial activity of ulein and proof of its action on the Plasmodium falci-
parum digestive vacuole. Malar. J. 9 (2), O9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/
1475-2875-9-S2-O9.

Oliveira, D.R.D., Alma, C., Leitão, G.G., Castro, N.G., Santos, J.P.D., Leitão, S.G., 2011.
Estudo etnofarmacognóstico da saracuramirá (Ampelozizyphus amazonicus
Ducke), uma planta medicinal usada por comunidades quilombolas do Muni-
cípio de Oriximiná-PA, Brasil. Acta Amaz. 41, 383–392.

Onaku, L.O., Attama, A.A., Okore, V.C., Tijana, A.Y., Ngene, A.A., 2001. Antagonistic
antimalarial properties of pawpaw leaf aqueous extract in combination with
artesunic acid in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. J. Vector Borne Dis. 48,
96–100.

Peçanha, L.M.T., Fernandes, P.D., Simen, T.J.M., Oliveira, D.R.D., Finotelli, P.V., Pereira,
M.V.A., Barboza, F.F., Almeida, T.S., Carvalhal, S., Pierucci, A.P.T.R., Leitão, G.G.,
Rastrelli, L., Piccineli, A.L., Leitão, S.G., 2013. Immunobiologic and antiin-
flammatory properties of a bark extract from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus
Ducke. Biomed. Res. Int. 2013, 1–11.

Pereira, M.D.M., Jácome, R.L.R.P., Alcântara, A.D.C., Alves, R.B., Raslan, D.S., 2007.
Alcalóides indólicos isolados de espécies do gênero Aspidosperma (Apoc-
ynaceae). Quim. Nova 30, 970–983.

Radambrasil. 1976. Ministério das Minas e Energia,Departamento Nacional de
Produção Mineral, Rio de Janeiro.

Rasoanaivo, P., Wright, C.W., Willcox, M.L., Gilbert, B., 2011. Whole plant extracts
versus single compounds for the treatment of malaria: synergy and positive
interactions. Malar. J. 10 (11), 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S4.
Reina, M., Ruiz-Mesia, W., Ruiz-Mesia, L., Martínez-Díaz, R., González-Coloma, A.,
2011. Indole alkaloids from Aspidosperma rigidum and A. schultesii and their
antiparasitic effects. Z. Naturforschung 66 (5–6), 225–234. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1515/znc-2011-5-605.

Rengifo, S.E., Vargas, A.G., 2013. Physalis angulata L.(Bolsa Mullaca): a review of its
traditional uses, chemistry and pharmacology. Bol. Latinoam. Del. Caribe
Plantas Med. Aromát. 12 (5), 431–445.

Rizzini, C.T., 1979. Tratado de Fitogeografia do Brasil. Aspectos ecológicos. Hucitec/
Edusp, São Paulo.

Rodrigues, E., 2006. Plants and animals utilized as medicines in the Jaú National
Park (JNP), Brazilian Amazon. Phytother. Res. 20 (5), 378–391. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/ptr.1866.

Rosas, L.V., Cordeiro, M.S.C., Campos, F.R., Nascimento, S.K.R., Januário, A.H., França,
S.C., Nomizo, A., Toldo, M.P.A., Albuquerque, S., Pereira, P.S., 2007. In vitro
evaluation of the cytotoxic and trypanocidal activities of Ampelozizyphus
amazonicus (Rhamnaceae). Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 40 (5), 663–670. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007000500009.

Roumy, V., Garcia-Pizango, G., Gutierrez-Choquevilca, A.L., Ruiz, L., Jullian, V.,
Winterton, P., Fabris, N., Mouris, C., Valentin, A., 2007. Amazonian plants from
Peru used by Quechua and Mestizo to treat malaria with evaluation of their
activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 112 (3), 482–489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2007.04.009.

Ruiz, L., Ruiz, L., Maco, M., Cobos, M., Gutierrez-Choquevilca, A.L., Roumy, V., 2011.
Plants used by native Amazonian groups from the Nanay River (Peru) for the
treatment of malaria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 133 (2), 917–921. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.039.

Sa, M.S., de Menezes, M.N., Krettli, A.U., Ribeiro, I.M., Tomassini, T.C., Ribeiro dos
Santos, R., Azevedo, W.F., Soares, M.B., 2011. Antimalarial activity of physalins B,
D, F, and G. J. Nat. Prod. 74 (10), 2269–2272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/
np200260f.

Santos, A.M.S., Kahwage, C.C., Ferreira, M.R.C., Sampaio, N.A., 2005. Medicinas
Tradicionais no Vale do Rio Negro (Amazonas, Brasil). Observações sobre Et-
nofarmacologia e o Uso da Planta Saracura-Mirá (Ampelozizyphus amazonicus):
Atividade Farmacológica e/ou Eficácia Simbólica. Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi:
Sér. Ciênc. Hum. 1, 137–147.

Santos, M.R.A.D., Lima, M.R., Ferreira, M.G.R., 2008. Uso de plantas medicinais pela
população de Ariquemes. Rondônia. Hortic. Bras. 26 (2), 244–250.

Santos, J.D.F.L., Pagani, E., Ramos, J., Rodrigues, E., 2012. Observations on the ther-
apeutic practices of riverine communities of the Unini River, AM, Brazil. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 142 (2), 503–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.027.

Schultes, R.E., Raffauf, R.F. 1990. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of
the Northwest Amazonia. Dioscorides Press, Oregon, United States.

Scudeller, V.V., Veiga, J.B.D., Araújo-Jorge, L.H.D., 2009. Etnoconhecimento de
plantas de uso medicinal nas comunidades São João do Tupé e Central (Reserva
de Desenvolvimento Sustentável do Tupé).Biotupé: Meio Físico, Diversidade
Biológica e Sociocultural do Baixo Rio Negro. Amazon. Cent. 2 (15), 185–199.

Silva, A.L., Tamashiro, J., Begossi, A., 2007. Ethnobotany of riverine populations from
the rio negro, amazonia (Brazil). J. Ethnobiol. 27 (1), 46–72.

Silva, J.A., Correa, G.M., Carvalho, R., Costa, R.A., Pinheiro, M.L., Araujo, L.M., Amaral,
A.F., 2009. Analyses of Ampelozizyphus amazonicus, a plant used in folk medi-
cine of the Amazon Region. Pharmacogn. Mag. 5 (17), 75.

Silva, L.F.R., Lima, E.S., Vasconcellos, M.C., Aranha, E.S.P., Costa, D.S., Santos, E.V.M.,
Morais, S.K.R., Alecrim, M.G.C., Nunomura, S.M., Struwe, L., Andrade-Neto, V.F.,
Pohlit, A.M., 2013. In vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity and cytotoxicity of
extracts, fractions and a substance isolated from the Amazonian plant Ta-
chia Gd. (Gentianaceae). Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 108 (4), 501–507. http://dx.
doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2007)27 [46:EORPFT]2.0.CO;2.

Solis, V.S., Lujan, M.M., Vela, J.E. 2010. Evaluación antioxidante y caracterización
química de las especies Euterpe oleracea y E. precatoria. Programa de In-
vestigación en Biodiversidad Amazónica. Instituto de Investigaciones de la
Amazonia Peruana. Available in: 〈http://190.187.112.90/cdpublicaciones2011/
documentos/pdf/piba/pu/1〉.pdf Accessed in: 18/02/2014.

Sombroek, W., 2001. Spatial and temporal patterns of Amazon rainfall: con-
sequences for the planning of agricultural occupation and the protection of
primary forests. AMBIO: J. Hum. Environ. 30 (7), 388–396. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.388.

Stropp, J., Sleen, P.V.D., Assunção, P.A., Silva, A.L.D., Steege, H.T., 2011. Tree com-
munities of white-sand and terra-firme forests of the upper Rio Negro. Acta
Amazon. 41 (4), 521–544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/
S0044-59672011000400010.

Tardío, J., Santayana, M.P., 2008. Cultural importance indices: a comparative ana-
lysis based on the useful wild plants of Southern Cantabria (Northern Spain) 1.
Econ. Bot. 62 (1), 24–39.

Tchoumbougnang, F., Zollo, P.H., Dagne, E., Mekonnen, Y., 2005. In vivo antimalarial
activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on
mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. Planta Medica 71 (1), 20–23. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837745.

Torres, Z.E., Silveira, E.R., Rocha e Silva, L.F., Lima, E.S., de Vasconcellos, M.C., de
Andrade Uchoa, D.E., Pohlit, A.M., 2013. Chemical composition of Aspidosperma
ulei Markgr. and antiplasmodial activity of selected indole alkaloids. Molecules
18 (6), 6281–6297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules18066281.

Valadeau, C., Pabon, A., Deharo, E., Albán-Castillo, J., Estévez, Y., Lores, F., Rojas, R.,
Gamboa, D., Sauvain, M., Castillo, D., Bourdy, G., 2009. Medicinal plants from
the Yanesha (Peru): evaluation of the leishmanicidal and antimalarial activity of
selected extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 123 (3), 413–422. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.020
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref41
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref41
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref41
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref43
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref43
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref43
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref43
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref45
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref45
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref45
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref46
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref46
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref46
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref46
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref46
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02862108
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02862108
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02862108
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref49
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref49
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref49
http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/periodicos/boletim_epidemiologico_numero_1_2013.pdf
http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/periodicos/boletim_epidemiologico_numero_1_2013.pdf
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref50
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref50
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref50
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref50
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957496
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957496
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957496
http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00094
http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00094
http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00094
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00191-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00191-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00191-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00191-9
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref55
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref55
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.044
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.044
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.044
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00458-8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00458-8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00458-8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00458-8
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref59
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref59
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref59
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref59
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-S2-O9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-S2-O9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-S2-O9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-S2-O9
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref61
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref61
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref61
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref61
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref61
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref62
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref62
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref62
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref62
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref62
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref63
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref64
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref64
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref64
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref64
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2011-5-605
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2011-5-605
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2011-5-605
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2011-5-605
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref68
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref68
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref68
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref68
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref69
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref69
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1866
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1866
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1866
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1866
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007000500009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007000500009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007000500009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007000500009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.009
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.039
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.039
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.039
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.039
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np200260f
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np200260f
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np200260f
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np200260f
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref75
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref76
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref76
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref76
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.027
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.027
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.027
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref78
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref78
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref78
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref78
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref78
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref79
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref79
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref79
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref80
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref80
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref80
http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2007)27
http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2007)27
http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2007)27
http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2007)27
http://190.187.112.90/cdpublicaciones2011/documentos/pdf/piba/pu/1
http://190.187.112.90/cdpublicaciones2011/documentos/pdf/piba/pu/1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.388
http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.388
http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.388
http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.388
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672011000400010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672011000400010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672011000400010
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672011000400010
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref85
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref85
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref85
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0378-8741(15)30250-6/sbref85
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837745
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837745
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837745
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837745
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules18066281
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules18066281
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules18066281
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041


C.W. Kffuri et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 178 (2016) 188–198198
Venkatesalu, V., Gopalan, N., Pillai, C.R., Singh, V., Chandrasekaran, M., Senthilk-
umar, A., Chandramouli, N., 2012. In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of some
traditionally used medicinal plants against Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol.
Res. 111 (1), 497–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-012-2834-9.

Vigneron, M., Deparis, X., Deharo, E., Bourdy, G., 2005. Antimalarial remedies in
French Guiana: a knowledge attitudes and practices study. J. Ethnopharmacol.
98 (3), 351–360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.049.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2014. World Malaria Report 2014. Geneva,
227p.

Zirihi, G.N., Mambu, L., Guédé-Guina, F., Bodo, B., Grellier, P., 2005. In vitro anti-
plasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of 33 West African plants used for treat-
ment of malaria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 98 (3), 281–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jep.2005.01.004.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-012-2834-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-012-2834-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-012-2834-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.049
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.049
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.049
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.004
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.004
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.004
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.004

	Antimalarial plants used by indigenous people of the Upper Rio Negro in Amazonas, Brazil
	Introduction
	Material and methods
	Study area
	Research authorization
	Ethnobotanical survey
	Quantitative analyses
	Literature review

	Results and discussion
	Sociocultural characteristics of the informants
	The species used as antimalarial and general data on the species
	Perception of the disease
	Medicinal plant species
	Plant parts
	Preparation methods and posology

	Antimalarial activity and phytochemistry, a bibliographic review
	Pharmacological and phytochemical data of the consensual antimalarial species
	Aspidosperma schultesii (RFCequal0.89)
	Ampelozizyphus amazonicus (RFCequal 0.88)
	Euterpe catinga (RFCequal 0.68) and Euterpe precatoria (RFCequal 0.32)
	Physalis angulata (RFCequal 0.33)
	Cocos nucifera (RFCequal 0.12)
	Swartzia argentea (RFCequal 0.08)



	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References