Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 1 Physicochemical, Microbial and Ecotoxicological Characteristics of Textile Effluent Collected in the Southeast Region of Brazil Pedro Henrique Mainardi (Corresponding author) São Paulo State University Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP) Inst. de Biociências/Dept. de Bioquímica e Microbiologia, São Paulo, Brasil Tel: 55-193-526-4192 E-mail: pedro.h.mainardi@unesp.br Ederio Dino Bidoia São Paulo State University Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP) Inst. de Biociências/Dept. de Bioquímica e Microbiologia, São Paulo, Brasil Tel: 55-193-526-4191 E-mail: ederio.bidoia@unesp.br Received: April 3, 2019 Accepted: May 14, 2019 Published: June 17, 2019 doi:10.5296/jee.v10i1.14740 URL: https://doi.org/10.5296/jee.v10i1.14740 Abstract The textile sector comprises several segments and detain a great economic and social value. Textile industries, however, demands large amounts of water and generate great loads of effluent in their production process. The effluent’s physical and chemical parameters, as much as its microbiological and ecotoxicological aspects, has been extremely useful to find out the key aspects for the development of novel methods of treatment and implementation of new techniques of industrial processing. In this study, a real effluent sample was collected from a textile factory situated in the southeast region of Brazil and analyzed for turbidity, solids content, oils and greases, alkalinity, pH value, electrical conductivity, BOD, COD, organic and inorganic components, total viable bacteria, coliforms and EC50 ecotoxicological degree using the microcrustacean Daphnia magna and the lettuce Lactuca sativa. The measured parameters were seen to have a great variation in comparison to a vast literature report and the characterization was shown to be extremely important in the search of new methods to reduce the volume and the toxicity of this kind of effluent. Keywords: Wastewater, residue, environmental monitoring, pollution prevention, dyeing industry Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 2 1. Introduction The textile sector is one of the oldest and most traditional in the world, with first report dating back to 3000 BC (Raichurkar and Ramachandran 2015). Today, the textile sector detains a great social and economic importance, comprising several subareas, such as the production and dyeing of yarns and fibers, development and manufacturing of clothing, fashion trends, logistics, retailing and distribution of products (Kozlowski et al. 2016; Agarwal et al. 2017; Todeschini et al. 2017). According to estimates, in the globe, the total market value of the textile industry segment is expected to reach $842,6 billion in the year of 2020 (Sivaram et al. 2019). In Brazil, in the year of 2017, the textile sector employed about 1.5 million workers with a market value of $53.4 billion of dollars (Lucato et al. 2017). Although its notable economic and social importance, textile industries are known to use large amount of water in their industrial process and generate high quantities of effluent. Around 200 liters of water is used per kilogram of raw material, whereas, approximately 10 to 15% of that volume is lost in form of effluent (Husain 2006; Ghaly et al. 2014). According to Dey and Islam (2015), small industrial plants generate an average of 8 m3/L of effluent per day and may reach around 400 m3/L in larger industrial plants. In most of the cases, textile effluents are consisted of a junction of wastes of several industrial processes, which generates a final effluent with a complex characteristic (Beltrame, 2000; Sivaram et al. 2019). The physicochemical characteristics of textile effluents, such as the turbidity, solids content, pH value, electrical conductivity, BOD, COD, alkalinity, oils and greases, concentration of organic and inorganic components, has been crucial in the development and implementation of novel methods of treatment (Correia et al. 1994; Bisschops and Spanjers 2003). The microbial and ecotoxicological aspects of the effluent, such as the quantity coliforms and its degree of ecotoxicity, has also been useful in the development of new treatment techniques and environmental management strategies (Sponza 2002; Akpor and Muchie 2011). The presence of fecal coliforms, a group of bacteria that are present in the intestinal flora of warm-blooded animals, presumes the presence of entero-pathogenies that have the potential to cause infectious diseases in humans, such as those of the genera Escherichia, Klebsiela, Enterobacter, Citrobacter and Serratia (Rompré et al. 2002; Pal 2014). Enteric bacteria, viruses and parasites are known to be responsible for the spread of various waterborne diseases and cause a high mortality rate in the world (Gavrilescu et al. 2015). The examples also include bacteria of the genus Salmonella, Vibrio and Legionella, protozoa such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium pavrum, as much as viruses such as hepatitis and rotavirus (Akpor and Muchie 2011). The ecotoxicity, also called environmental toxicology, is the science that evaluates the effect of pollutants from an ecological perspective (Levin et al. 2011). The ecotoxicology assesses the impact of pollutants in the scale of populations, communities and ecosystems, through the use of testing organisms (Hoffman et al. 2002). Ecotoxicological parameters are used to forecast the transformation processes of pollutants in the environment at different trophic levels (Moriarty 1988; Costa et al. 2008; Gavrilescu 2010). In this context, the objective of this study was to collect a sample of textile effluent from a plant located in the southeast Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 3 region of Brazil and characterize it through its physicochemical, microbiological and ecotoxicological aspects. 2. Material and Methods 2.1 Sample Collection The raw effluent was collected at 11:00 am in October 2018 from an industrial plant located in the southeast region of Brazil. The industry was currently processing only cotton fibers and generated an average of 40 m3 of effluent per hour. The material was collected before mixing with any traditional sewage or treatment system. The sample was transported and refrigerated maintained until the analysis procedure. 2.2 UV-VIS Analysis, pH Value and Electrical Conductivity The spectrophotometric analyzes were made in the spectrophotometer UV-2401 (Shimadzu) in quartz cuvettes with 4.5 cm height, 1.2 cm width and 1.2 cm depth. The Absorbance scans were performed at the wavelength of 300 to 800 nm, with 1.0 nm interval between the readings. The readings were made before and after centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 30 minutes. The sample was diluted when necessary. The pH value of the sample was measured on the pH meter DMPH-2 (Digimed), calibrated with buffer solution of pH 4.0 and 7.0. The electrical conductivity was measured through the conductivity meter CA150 (Comitec), calibrated in standard conductivity solution. 2.3 Physicochemical Analysis The turbidity measurement was done through the method 2130b, settleable solids through the method 2540f, total suspended solids by the method 2540d, total dissolved solids by the method 2450c, BOD5 and COD by the methods 5210b and 5220d, alkalinity by method 2320b, oils and greases by method 5520f, total nitrogen by the 4500-NorgB method, cyanide by 4500-CN-de method, chromium by 3500-Crb, fluoride by 4500-fc, sulfide by 4500-s2d and the total phenol by the 5530cd method (APHA 2017). The concentrations of aluminum, barium, boron, cadmium, calcium, lead, copper, tin, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, mercury, nickel, potassium, silver, selenium, sodium, zinc were detected by the method 6010c, arsenic by method 7062, ammoniacal nitrogen by the method 350.1, chloride and sulfate by method 300.1 (USEPA 1993; USEPA 1994; USEPA 1997; USEPA 2007). The analyzes of benzene, chloroform, dichloroethenes, styrene, ethylbenzene, trichloroethene, toluene and xylene were done using method 8260d (USEPA 1993). 2.4 Microbiological Analyzes The enumeration of total and fecal coliforms was done through the methods 9222e and 9222e (APHA 2017). The total enumeration of microbial colonies was done by the Drop Plate method, based on Herigstad (2001). The method consisted of adding 50 μL of serial dilutions of the sample in peptone water (0.1% w/v) to a quadrant of a petri dish that contained PCA medium. The 50 ul were dispensed separately in 5 drops with a volume of 10 μL each. After drying the droplets, the plates were incubated at 35°C for 24 hours and analyzed visually for the number of colonies forming units (CFU). The enumeration was done through equation 1. Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 4 Equation 1 where NC refers to the number of colonies growing in each quadrant of the plate and DF to the sample dilution factor. 2.5 Ecotoxicological Analyzes The EC20 and EC50 indexes were determined by linear regression of the biological factor as a function of the logarithmic effluent concentration (Moriarty 1988). The acute toxicity index was calculated using the mean effective concentration (ATU = 100/EC50) and classified according to table 1. Table 1. Scale of toxicity based on Sanchez et al. (1988). Rank EC50 (%) ATU Class 1 <25 >4.0 Very Toxic 2 26-50 3.9-2.0 Moderately toxic 3 51-74 1.9-1.4 Toxic 4 >75 <1.3 Slightly 5 No toxic effect - Nontoxic 2.5.1 Immobilization of the Microcrustacean Daphnia Magna The acute toxicity test with Daphnia magna microcrustacean was done according to OECD (2004). The experiment was done in quadruplicate test tubes containing 10 mL of different sample dilutions and 5 microcrustaceans each (2 mL per individual). The exposure time of the test organisms was 48 hours at 20°C in the dark. The dilution water and the experiment control had the hardness of 209.52 mg L-1 (CaCO3) and pH value of 7.84. 2.5.2 Inhibition of Germination of the Lettuce Lactuca Sativa The degree of phytotoxicity was determined by the inhibition of germination of the lettuce Lactuca sativa. The seeds were obtained in commercial packs without the presence of agrochemicals. The experiment was done by adding 3.0 mL of different sample concentrations and 20 seeds of lettuce in sterile petri dishes containing a filter paper at the bottom. The plates were incubated in a climatic chamber at 21°C for 120h in the dark. The percentage of inhibition was calculated from Araújo and Monteiro (2005) germination index, using measures of root lengthening and relative germination of the seeds in each plate (Equations 2, 3 and 4). The positive control was done by replacing the sample with zinc sulphate solution (0.05 M) and the negative control with sterile deionized water. The experiment was done in duplicate. Equation 2 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 5 Equation 3 Equation 4 where RL refers to the relative root length (%), RLs to the mean root length of the seeds on the plate with the sample, RLc to the mean root length of the seeds in the control plate, RG to the relative germination index (%), GSs to the number of seeds that germinated on the plate containing the sample, GSc to the number of seeds that germinated in the control plate, GIN to the germination inhibition index (%). 3. Results 3.1 Effluent Characteristics The textile effluent had an unpleasant odor, with a turbidity index of 650 NTU and highest absorbance of 0.28 (dilution 1:64) at the wavelength region of 667 nm (λmax) (Figure 1). There was the quantity of 1.0 mL L-1 of settleable and 6790 mg L-1 of total solids. The effluent had an alkalinity value of 4200 mg CaCO3 L-1, the amount of 33.8 mg L-1 of oils and greases, pH value of 10.31 units and electrical conductivity of 7260 μS/cm. The BOD5 and COD values were 1747 and 3595 mg L-1, with a BOD/COD factor of 0.49. The microbial enumeration indicated the presence of 5,3 x 105 UFC mL-1 of cultivable bacteria, 2,0 x 102 UFC mL-1 of total coliforms and 1,0 x 102 UFC mL-1 fecal coliforms. The ecotoxicological test with D. magna and L. sativa indicated EC50 values of 3.04% and 66.24%. The concentrations of heavy metals, trace elements, organic and inorganic components are cited in table 2. Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 6 Figure 1. Absorbance units in function of textile effluent wavelength at 1:64 dilution rate. Table 2. Parameters of the textile effluent. Parameter Result Unit Odor Unpleasant/Pungent - Turbidity 650 NTU λmax 667 nm Settleable solids 1.0 mL L-1 Total suspended solids 395 mg L-1 Total dissolved solids 6395 mg L-1 Total solids 6790 mg L-1 pH 10.31 Electric conductivity 7260 µS/cm BOD5 1747 mg L-1 COD 3595 mg L-1 BOD/COD 0.49 - Alkalinity 4200 mgCaCO3 L-1 Oils and grease 33.8 mg L-1 Aluminum 0.104 mg L-1 Arsenic <0.005 mg L-1 Barium 0.025 mg L-1 Boron 0.125 mg L-1 Cadmium <0.001 mg L-1 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 7 Parameter Result Unit Calcium <1000 mg L-1 Lead <0.005 mg L-1 Chloride 95.80 mg L-1 Copper 0.015 mg L-1 Chromium 0.036 mg L-1 Tin 0.013 mg L-1 Iron 0.303 mg L-1 Fluoride 0.253 mg F- L-1 Phosphor 21.30 mg L-1 Magnesium 15.00 mg L-1 Manganese 0.045 mg L-1 Mercury <0.0002 mg L-1 Nickel 0.063 mg L-1 Nitrogen 230 mg N L-1 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 3.42 mg NH3 L-1 Potassium 355 mg L-1 Silver <0.005 mg L-1 Selenium <0.005 mg L-1 Silica <2500 mg SiO2 L-1 Sodium 227 mg L-1 Sulphate 1985 mg L-1 Sulfide 1.907 mg S2- L-1 Zinc 0.167 mg L-1 Benzene <0.001 mg L-1 Chloroform <0.001 mg L-1 Cyanide <0.010 mg CN- L-1 1,2-dichloroethene <0.001 mg L-1 Styrene <0.001 mg L-1 Ethylbenzene <0.001 mg L-1 Total Phenols <0.001 mg L-1 Carbon tetrachloride <0.001 mg L-1 Toluene <0.001 mg L-1 Trichlorethylene <0.001 mg L-1 Xylene <0.001 mg L-1 Total viable microbial count 5.3 x 105 UFC mL-1 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 8 Parameter Result Unit Total coliforms 2.0 x 102 UFC mL-1 Total fecal coliforms 1.0 x 102 UFC mL-1 D. magna (EC50) 3.04 % L. sativa (EC50) 66.24 % 4. Discussion 4.1 Odor The effluent had an unpleasant odor, probably due the presence of volatile components, so called volatile organic compounds (VOC) or air toxics. Those components, which include nitrous gases, sulfur compounds and aromatic hydrocarbons, are known to be harmful to humans, the environment, and also may modify the composition of the atmospheric air (Müezzinoğlu 1998; Pereira 2002; Dey and Islam 2015). The implementation of air filters had been proved as a feasible method for lowering the emission of air pollutants by industrial plants (Leson and Winer 1991; Subrenat and Le Cloirec 2006). The replace of traditional chemicals to less-toxic ones, the optimization of the industrial operations and better agroforestry management were also recommended to reduce the emission of air pollutants (Müezzinoğlu 1998). 4.2 pH Value The pH directly affects the capacity of water buffering, interfere the chemical reactions, the metabolism of living organisms and were proven to cause great influence in aquatics and terrestrial ecosystems (Goodwin et al. 1988; Beltrame 2000; ŠImek and Cooper 2002; Lacoul and Freedman 2006; Hartman 2008; Wootton and Forester 2008; Favas et al. 2016; Gómez et al. 2017). The vast majority of fishes, for example, only survive in a narrow pH range of 6-9 (Dey and Islam 2015). The alkaline pH of 10.31 is due the use of hydroxide and sodium carbonate, commonly used in the processing of cotton fibers (Rodrigues et al. 2013). Literature reports, indeed, indicated a high variation in this parameter, with pH values ranging from acid 3.0 to alkaline 13.0 (Table 3). The high pH variation is due to the use of a great diversity of chemical reagents and different types of raw materials in the textile processing (Correia et al. 1994; Verma et al. 2012; dos Santos 2018). In addition, effluents of this type, in most cases, are composed of mixtures from several different industrial processes (Beltrame 2000; Sivaram 2019). In general, the pH of the effluent is neutralized in the early stages of the treatment process, called equalization or neutralization steps (Kunz et al. 2002; Powar et al., 2012). The pH adjustment had been crucial in most treatment techniques, especially the biological ones, such as activated sludge and anaerobic reactors (Lin and Peng 1994; Rajeshwari et al. 2000; Rai et al. 2005; Sarayu and Sandhya 2012). 4.3 Electrical Conductivity The electrical conductivity is the capability of a material being able to conduct an electric Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 9 current (Lee et al. 2012). The electrical conductivity is used to quantity the ionic content of aqueous solutions and the dissolved salts that are present in a solvent, an important parameter for water reuse (Chuang et al. 2007; Torres et al. 2009). The high value of 7260 μS/cm seen the effluent is due to the use of high concentrations of salts used to fix the dyes to the fibers, such as chloride and sodium sulfate (Khatri et al. 2015). Reports in the literature indicated values between 653 and 29800 μS/cm (Table 3). The high concentration of dissolved salts in this type of effluent is worrying, since they are not possible to be removed by conventional treatment methods (Sultana et al. 2013). In general, effluents with an electrical conductivity above 2,000 μS/cm tend to cause adverse effects on freshwater species and the life of aquatic organisms (Goodfellow, 2000; Morrison 2001). Membrane filtration methods, such as electrodialysis, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, had been efficiently used in the salt removal of industrial effluents (Bes-Piá 2005; Greenlee 2009; Van der Bruggen et al. 2017). 4.4 BOD and COD The BOD and COD, which refers to the aerobic microbial and chemical decomposition of the organic matter, as much the BOD/COD ratio, are parameters that allow the classification of the biodegradability of effluents (Samudro and Mangkoedihardjo 2010). According to the results, the values of 1747 mg L-1 of BOD and 3595 mg L-1 of COD indicated a mean presence of non-biodegradable organic matter, with a BOD/COD ratio of 0.49. Literature reports, however, indicated studies with extremely low BOD/COD ratio, with values around 0.01 units (Table 3). Values below 0.25 in the BOD/COD rate presume the presence of large proportions of non-biodegradable organic matter, such as humic and fulvic acids, as well as large amounts of suspended solids such as salts, chlorides, carbonates, ammonia and sodium (Al-Kdasi et al. 2004; Samudro and Mangkoedihardjo 2010). Molecules with high molecular weight and complex chemical structure, such as dyes and fibers residues, also have a significant influence in the non-biodegradable organic matter content of textile effluents (Akpor and Muchie 2011; Dey and Islam 2015). Chemical and oxidative treatments such as coagulation/flocculation, electro-fenton and ozonation had been efficiently used to reduce the non-biodegradable organic matter in textile effluents (Ramesh et al. 2017; Roshini et al. 2017; Favero et al. 2018; Ulucan-Altuntas and Ilhan 2018). The use of anaerobic bioreactors had also been shown to achieve considerable performance in the reduction of non-biodegradable organic matter content in this type of effluent (Bhattacharjee 2017). 4.5 Turbidity and Coloration The 650 NTU of turbidity indicated the presence of high quantity of colloidal substances and suspended matter (Hongve and Åkesson 1996). The turbidity index also includes yarns, lint, rags and a proportion of dyes that did not bind the fibers during the industrial process (Guaratini and Zanoni 2000; Carmen and Daniela 2012; Ghaly et al. 2014; Chandran 2016). The parameter was seen to have a great variation, since the textile production processes are closed related to fashion trends (O’Neill 1999) (Table 3). High colored effluents represent a major environmental risk since they alter directly the visual appearance of water. They are responsible for influencing the rate of photosynthesis and the eutrophication of water bodies Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 10 (Pierce 1994; Beltrame 2000; Sarayu and Sandhya 2012; Favas et al. 2016; Gómez et al. 2017). Chemical and biological methods were proven to have good efficiency in the removal of color in textile effluents. Those methods include ozonation, coagulation and biological treatment with specialized microbial strains (Kapdan and Alparslan 2005; Jadhav et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2012; Rodrigues 2013; Cardoso et al. 2016; Holkar 2016; Xu et al. 2018). The integration of different types of treatment methods, indeed, were seen to improve the efficiency of color removal in textile effluents (Manenti et al. 2014; Nawaz and Ahsan 2014; Dasgupta et al. 2015). Mostly, the implementation of environmentally friendly industrial processes, such as the use of natural dyes, development of novel pre-treatment techniques of the raw material and more sophisticated dyeing methods were suggested to reduce the amount of dyes released by this type of effluent (Khatri et al. 2015; Siddiqua et al. 2017; Periyasamy et al. 2017; Kumar and Gunasundari 2018). 4.6 Solids Content The 6790 mg L-1 of total solids indicated the presence of colloidal particles, such as yarns and lint, that are released from the fibers. The parameter also includes acids, alkalis and salts that are used in the textile processing. (Correia et al. 1994; Ghaly et al. 2014; Chandran 2016). The solids content, as shown in figure 1, significantly influenced the spectrophotometric analyzes. In excess, those solids may interfere in the oxygenation of water bodies, reduce the photosynthesis rate and cause adverse effects on the water quality of aquatic ecosystems (Dey and Islam 2015; Favas et al. 2016). In industrial scales, the removal of solids is generally done on the first steps of treatment, with methods like filtration, gravity separation, sedimentation, flotation and coagulation (Carmen and Daniela 2012; Ghaly et al. 2014). Due to the high solids content, the treatment of this type of effluent generally produces large amounts of residual sludge. The quantity, however, differs considerably between the different types of industrial processes and raw materials (Table 3). 4.7 Oils and Grease The amount of 34 mg L-1 of oil and grease found in the effluent sample, which in this case, referred to the hydrocarbons and fatty acids able to be solubilized in hexane, was above the recommended limit of 10 mg L-1 (Abo‐Elela et al. 1998). As expected, it was also observed a high variation in this parameter, from values ranging from 6 to 2370 mg L-1 (Table 3). The presence of oils and greases in this type of effluent is due to the use of fatty acid and non-polar hydrocarbon reagents in the industrial processing, like surfactants, waxes, soaps, softeners, oils and lubricants, as well as refectory discards in some cases (Correia et al. 1994; Beltrame 2000; Bisschops and Spanjers 2003; Dey and Islam 2015). If released into bodies of water, oils and greases can form a film on the surface of the fluid, changing its oxygen transfer rate and severe damage to the aquatic life (Ghaly 2014; Kolhe and Pawar 2011). The removal of oils and grease from effluents is usually done in the first stages of the treatment, in so-called separation tanks (Abo‐Elela 1988; Ghaly 2014). Adsorption and electrochemical methods were seen to reduce efficiently the concentration of Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 11 this parameter in industrial effluents (Chen 2004; Rincón and La Motta 2014; Hamid et al. 2016). The biological treatment had also demonstrated good efficiency in the removal of oils and greases from industrial effluents, especially the anaerobic digestion, due to the possibility to produce biogas as part of the treatment process (El-Bestawy et al. 2005; Salama et al. 2019). 4.8 Alkalinity Alkalinity refers to the water capacity of neutralizing a weak acid (Wurts and Durborow 1992; Sudhanya and Chinnamma 2018). The high amount of 4200 mg L-1 of CaCO3 detected in our analyzes is mainly due to the use of large amounts of sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate in several stages of textile processing (Beltrame 2000; Rodrigues et al. 2013; Khatri et al. 2015; Tchamango et al. 2017). High alkalinity effluent values, which were seen to have a great variation among others authors (Table 3), were seen to cause significantly changes in the physiological mechanism of plants roots and increase the ecotoxicity degree of samples due the formation of the ammonia through influences in the solution pH (Clément and Merlin 1995; de la Torre-González et al. 2018). 4.9 Microbiological Parameters According to the microbial analyses, the effluent had the quantity of 5.3 x 105 CFU mL-1 of viable bacteria. The value of this parameter, as the physicochemical ones, varied considerably among others researches from the literature, with enumerations that ranged from 3.9 x 10 to 6.11 x 107 CFU mL-1. The amount of 2.0 x 102 CFU mL-1 of total coliforms and 1.0 x 102 CFU mL-1 of fecal coliforms, although not well reported, had also great variance in comparison to others researchers in the literature (Table 3). In textile effluents, microbial diversity studies indicated the presence of bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Serattia, Erysipelothrix, Amphibacillus, Micrococcus, Listeria, Nocardia and fungi from the genus Aspergillus, Penicillium, Candida and Rhizopus (Faryal and Hameed 2005; Mahbub et al. 2012; Hassan et al. 2013; Damodaran et al. 2017; Saha et al. 2017; Jayaseelan et al. 2018; Roy et al. 2018). Oxidative methods such as UV disinfection, chlorination, ozonation, photo-fenton, ultrasonic methods, membrane filtration, and the use of nanoparticles, had been used in the elimination and inactivation of pathogens in the treatment of wastewaters (Yasar et al. 2007; Giwa and Ogunribido 2012; Kumar et al. 2017; Gomes et al. 2019; Amabilis-Sosa et al. 2018; De la Obra Jímenez et al. 2019). The resistance of the pathogens, however, can vary considerably among the treatment processes (Hirn 1980). Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 12 Table 3. Physiochemical and microbial parameters of different studies with textile effluent. pH C E1 B O D 2 C O D 2 B O D /C O D Tu rb . 3 λm ax 4 Se ttl ea bl e so lid s5 To ta l s ol id s2 Su sp en de d so lid s2 D is so lv ed so lid s2 O ils a nd g re as es 2 A lk al in ity 6 B ac . c ou nt 7 C ol ifo rm s7 Fe ca l c ol ifo rm s7 R ef er en ce 10.31 7260 1747 3595 0.49 650 667 1.0 6790 395 6395 34 4200 5.3 x 105 2.0 x 102 1.0 x 102 Actual study 11.59 – 12.87 - - 331 - 1473 - - 450; 600 0.1 – 0.4 2008 - 8802 26 - 75 1988 - 8739 74 5209 - - - Beltrame 2000 10.21 – 11.53 - 163 - 645 1067 - 2430 - - - - - 35 - 1200 250 - 2200 6 - 8 - - - - Yusuff and Sonibare 2004 12.00 - - - - 49 - - - - - - - - - - Bes-Piá et al. 2005 9.90 - 1626 2190 0.74 - - - 7333 210 - - 946 - - - Kaushik et al. 2005 10.00 - 170 1150 0.15 - - - - 150 - - - - - - Selcuk 2005 8.06 – 12.44 1070 - 5810 70 – 553 448 – 2080 - - - - 1636 - 20318 416 - 15343 1230 - 4975 - - 0.001 x 103 – 5.0 x 103 - - Faryal and Hameed 2005 7.20 – 7.60 653 - - - 25 - 31 - - - - - - - - - - Choo et al. 2007 7.70 – 11.90 - 243 - 848 1088 – 2080 - - - - 1647 - 19297 416 – 15449 1231 – 3850 - - 0.21 x 105 - 11.5 x 105 - - Ali et al. 2009 7.12 – 12.99 - - 350 - - - - 2000 - 31800- 300 - 780 - 160 - 2370 - - - - Ogunlaja and Aemere 2009 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.8 x 106 2.4 x 10 2.4 x 10 Das et al. 2010 7.51 9565 275 789 0.35 - - - 7625 1750 5875 - - 11.6 x 105 - - Prasad and Rao 2011 7.71 – 8.20 - 130 - 500 381 - 1548 - - - - - - 3896 - 7072 - 280 - 500 - - - Paul et al. 2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.8 x 107 - - Hassan et al. 2013 11.30 18000 200 1200 0.16 - 641 - - - - - - - - - Manenti et al. 2014 9.17 - 11.80 - 800 - 895 1766 – 2100 - - 487; 539; 625 - 1977 - 2170 447 - 505 1530 - 1665 - - >1.0 x 106 >1.0 x 105 - Iqbal and Nisar 2015 8.25 - 380 624 0.61 - 468 - 1300 380 920 - - - - - Jadhav et al. 2015 8.30 - 411 1309 0.31 - - - 559 96 463 - - 3.9 x 10 2.1 x 103 - Islam et al. 2015 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 13 pH C E1 B O D 2 C O D 2 B O D /C O D Tu rb . 3 λm ax 4 Se ttl ea bl e so lid s5 To ta l s ol id s2 Su sp en de d so lid s2 D is so lv ed so lid s2 O ils a nd g re as es 2 A lk al in ity 6 B ac . c ou nt 7 C ol ifo rm s7 Fe ca l c ol ifo rm s7 R ef er en ce 9.00 - 10 1017 0.01 - 536 - - 535 - - - - - - Tomei et al. 2016 7.90 2045 - 2530 320 - 380 5240 – 5590 - 28 - 36 - - 17150 - 25658 610 - 968 16540 - 24690 - - - - - Jorfi et al. 2016 8.84 2000 - 963 - 112 - - 1040 - - - - - - - Aquino et al. 2016 8.46 - 750 1200 0.63 - - - 4500 1250 3200 - - - - - Ajao et al. 2017 9.44 – 9.62 11300 - 17160 200 - 300 850 – 1065 - - - - - - - - - - - - Paździor et al. 2017 7.03 - - 558 - - - - - - - - - - - - Souza et al. 2017 6.45 2130 - 1266 - 214 - - - - - - - - - - Bouaouine et al. 2017 6.23 2870 - 649 - 64 - - - - - - - Tchamango et al. 2017 10.2 - 1528 1645 0.93 278 - - 13905 6725 7180 - - - - - Chandanshive et al. 2017 6.52 13380 398 1444 0.27 - - - 25320 - 9310 - - - - - Roshini et al. 2017 5.50 – 8.50 - - 1800 - - - - - 100 - 500 2100 20 - 50 - - - - Powar et al. 2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.11 x 107 - - Prabha et al. 2017 10.30 - - 2073 - 606 - - - - - - - - - - Favero et al. 2018 8.31 3560 983 1589 0.62 1400 - - 2470 189 2280 - - - - - Janani and Kumar 2018 9.69 - 350 1395 0.25 183 - - - - 3120 126 498 - - - dos Santos et al. 2018 9.30 - 90 571 0.16 - - - - - - 15 430 - - - Sudhanya and Chinnamma 2018 8.04 - - - - - - - - - 8970 - - 7.7 x 106 - - Khan and Malik 2018 13.30 11900 - 3404 - 35 670 - - - - - - - - - Gökkuş et al. 2018 9.30 4010 115 720 0.16 161 - - - - - - - - - - GilPavas et al. 2018 6.30 - 218 838 0.26 - - - 1788 200 1588 - 140 - - - Malik et al. 2018 2.79 - - - - 250 - - 7000 1250 5750 - - - - - Ramesh and Mekala 2018 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 14 pH C E1 B O D 2 C O D 2 B O D /C O D Tu rb . 3 λm ax 4 Se ttl ea bl e so lid s5 To ta l s ol id s2 Su sp en de d so lid s2 D is so lv ed so lid s2 O ils a nd g re as es 2 A lk al in ity 6 B ac . c ou nt 7 C ol ifo rm s7 Fe ca l c ol ifo rm s7 R ef er en ce 5.23 2811 1400 2022 0.70 735 - - - - 1367 - 1000 - - - Sánchez-Sánchez et al. 2018 7.80 8400 190 493 0.39 - - 382 5420 324 5164 - - - - - Hussain et al. 2018 8.05 – 10.59 7168 - 29800 400 - 564 486 - 2436 - - - - 5012 - 8596 222 - 1890 4790 - 6706 - 235 - 2158 - - - Singare 2019 9.84 - 200 544 0.70 - - - - 59400 50800 - - - - - Kaur et al. 2019 1: µS cm-1; 2: mg L-1; 3: NTU; 4: nm; 5: mL L-1; 6: mg CaCO3 L-1; 7: UFC mL-1. 4.10 Inorganic Components 4.10.1 Sodium and Chloride The concentrations of 227 mg L-1 of sodium and 96 mg L-1 of chloride were lower than most of the reports seen in the literature, with maximum reported concentrations of 1560 mg L-1 sodium and 34000 mg L-1 of chloride (Table 4). Although the presence of sodium chloride is undoubtedly necessary for the health of the animals, in excess, salt can lead to poisoning, cause acute, chronic toxicologic effects and promote severe changes in the biodiversity of aquatic and terrestrial communities (Weber-Scannell and Duffy 2007; Sultana et al. 2013; Thompson 2018). Salts in excess are also responsible for reducing the osmotic potential of the soil, prevents the water absorption of seeds and inhibits the growth of plants (Flowers et al. 2014; Geilfus et al. 2018; Roy et al. 2018). According to Gardiner and Borne (1978), concentrations above 50 mg L-1 of chloride are already sufficient to adversely affect the growth of plants. The high salinity detected in textile effluents is due to the use of large amounts of salts and alkalinizes for dyeing fixing, such as sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and sodium hydroxide (Correia et al. 1994; Rodrigues et al. 2013). Depending on the type of fiber, chemical structure of the dye and dyeing method, the amount of salt used can reach two kilogram per kilogram of processed raw material (Khatri et al. 2015). As discussed above, the concentration of dissolved salts in this effluent represent a major environmental problem since they are not possible to be removed by conventional treatment methods. Membrane filtration techniques, such as reverse osmosis and electrodialysis methods, had been successfully used in the removal of the dissolved salts from industrial effluents (Ciardelli et al. 2001; Fersi et al. 2005; Lafi et al. 2018). The development of novel, sustainable and environmentally friendly dyeing methods had also been frequently considered by the researchers. The strategies include the development of new type of dyes, modifications in the actual machinery and industrial processes, pre-modification of the textile fibers and use of natural compounds in the textile processing (Khatri et al. 2015; Periyasamy et al. 2017; Hussain and Wahab 2018; Kumar and Gunasundari 2018). Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 15 4.10.2 Sulphate The amount of 1985 mg L-1 of sulphate was above the values seen in the literature, with maximum concentration reported of 1118 mg L-1 (Table 4). Sulphate is a stable and soluble compound, commonly founded in surface and ground waters (Kolhe and Pawar 2011). Sulphate comes from the dyeing baths made with sulfur-based dyes and from the use of auxiliary reagents in several stages of the processing, such as sodium sulphate, sodium hydrosulphite and sulfuric acid (Correia et al. 1994; Beltrame 2000; Bisschops and Spanjers 2003). In fact, the presence of sulphates is worrying because under high concentrations of organic matter and low oxygenation, the compound can be converted to sulphite and form the hydrogen sulphide, a toxic and unpleasant gas (Dey and Islam 2015). Sulphite can also be oxidized to sulfuric acid, a corrosive and toxic compound (Beltrame 2000). Effluents with sulphate concentrations above 300 mg L-1 are considered to be of concern when discarded in traditional sewage networks (Gardiner and Borne 1978). 4.10.3 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium The amount of 230 mg L-1 of nitrogen, a crucial element for the development of living organisms, was within the values seen in the literature, with a maximum reported concentration of 246 mg L-1 (Table 4). Nitrogen is an important parameter in wastewater, since at concentrations above 10 mg L-1, it may already have negative impacts on the environment and human health (Akpor and Muchie 2011). Nitrogen in textile effluents comes mainly from the dyes used in processing, especially those containing the azo group (Bisschops and Spanjers 2003). Other reagents used in the dyebaths, in the printing and coating stages, such as urea, ammonia acetate and ammonium sulfate, also contributes to the concentration of nitrogen seen in this type of effluent (Sarayu and Sandhya 2012). The amounts of 355 mg L-1 of potassium and 21 mg L-1 of phosphorus detected in the effluent were close to values reported by other researchers, as demonstrated in table 4. These components are derived from the use of auxiliary reagents during the dyeing, mercerization and bleaching steps, such as potassium dichromate, ammonium phosphate, phosphorus alcohols and sodium phosphate (Beltrame 2000; Sarayu and Sandhya 2012; Dey and Islam 2015). Effluents with high nutrient content, if discarded directly into water bodies, can cause excessive growth of microorganisms, significantly increase the BOD, and thus, reduce the amount of oxygen dissolved in the fluid and, consequently, cause death of aquatic life through eutrophication (Akpor and Muchie 2011; Dey and Islam 2015; Bassin 2018). Aerobic and anaerobic biological treatments, chemical precipitation, adsorption, wetlands systems, membrane filtration, electrocoagulation and aerobic granules methods had been successfully used to remove nutrients from wastewaters (Zhang et al. 2009; Bassin 2018; de Oliveira et al. 2018; Khatri et al. 2018; Hermassi et al. 2019; Tian et al. 2018; Yan et al. 2018; Sarvajith et al. 2018; Lyu et al. 2018). Studies also indicated the possible recycling of the nutrients in the form of agricultural fertilizers and generation of biogas through microorganism cultivation (Ummalyma et al. 2018; Mai et al. 2018). 4.10.4 Calcium and Magnesium Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 16 The effluent had slightly lower concentrations of magnesium and calcium. Literature studies, however, indicated reports with values of 1500 mg L-1 of calcium and 889 mg L-1 of magnesium (Table 4). These ions, together with iron, manganese, strontium and others, are responsible for the water hardness characteristic. The hardness directly influences the physical characteristics of the soil and are crucial in the development of plants (Silva et al. 2018). In excess, these ions tend to deteriorate the soil, making it toxic to plants and also to freshwater organisms (Van Dam et al. 2010; Bogart et al. 2019; Qadir et al. 2018). In reused waters, the excess of hardness can clog the pipes and the filter membranes of hydraulic installations (de Araujo and Bezerra 2018; Silva et al. 2018). The techniques of reverse osmosis, membrane filtration, electrocoagulation, carbonization and treatment by aerobic bioreactors were seen to significantly reduce the hardness of wastewaters (Ahn et al. 2018; Cabiguen Jr et al. 2018; Parlar et al. 2018; Singare 2019). 4.10.5 Cyanide, Organochlorines and Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Textile effluents typically contains a large range of organic compounds that may exhibit a certain degree of toxicity. These compounds, with functional groups as phenols, amines, alcohols, ethers, alkanes, are mainly derived from the dye molecules, auxiliary reagents, solvents and organochlorine products used in pest control (Gardiner and Borne 1978; Correia et al. 1994; Ghaly et al. 2014; Castro et al. 2018; Dolez and Benaddi 2018; Liang et al. 2018; Kaur et al. 2019; Sivaram et al. 2019). Fortunately, the sample did not indicate the presence of cyanide, organochlorines and aromatic hydrocarbons, such as chloroform, dichloroethane, trichlorethylene, phenols, benzene, styrene, ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene (Table 2). Other studies, however, detected the presence of those compounds as much as concentrations up to 0.2 and 6.6 mg L-1 of cyanide and phenols (Table 4). These compounds were seen to cause inhibitory effects on the activity of microorganisms in conventional biological treatments and may be harmful to the environment (Beltrame 2000; Sivaram et al. 2019). Oxidative methods such as the electrochemical, photocatalytic and ozonation have demonstrated success in the removal of organic compounds from textile effluents (Ahmed et al. 2011; Malik et al. 2018; Silva et al. 2018; Kaur et al. 2019). Other removal proposals include the development of new designs of reactors in biological treatments, the use of adapted microorganisms and catalytic enzymes (Husain 2006; Chanwala et al. 2019; Meerbergen et al. 2018; Xu et al. 2018). The substitution of conventional reagents used in textile processing by environmentally friendly compounds is also widely cogitated (Shenai 2001; Kumar and Gunasundari 2018). Table 4. Maximum concentrations of inorganic and organic components found in different studies with textile effluent (mg L-1). Calcium Magnesium Chloride Sodium Nitrogen Phosphor Potassium Sulphate Cyanide Phenols Reference <1000 15 96 227 230 21 355 1985 <0.010 <0.001 Actual study - - - - - - - - 0.20 1.10 Rawlings and Samfield 1979 Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 17 Calcium Magnesium Chloride Sodium Nitrogen Phosphor Potassium Sulphate Cyanide Phenols Reference - - - - - - - - - 0.00002 Castillo et al. 1999 - - 2379 - - - - - - - Beltrame 2000 - - - - - - - 345 0.20 0.077 Radetski et al. 2002 - - - 258 - 2 111 - - - Faryal and Hameed 2005 318 - 860 186 246 - 9 381 - - Kaushik et al. 2005 - - 1820 - - - - 680 - - Selcuk 2005 - - 34000 - - 2 - 30 - 6.600 Kapdan and Alparslan 2005 1500 889 2013 - - - - 240 - 0.143 Prasad and Rao 2011 404 210 2750 - - - - 912 - - Paul et al. 2012 - - 98 - 10 5 - 365 - 2.620 Zaharia and Suteu 2013 15 6 6 4 - - 180 119 - - Manenti et al. 2014 - 5 - 1532 - - - - - - Jadhav et al. 2015 - - 39 - - - - 5 - - Tomei et al. 2016 8.46 - - - - - - 5 - - Ajao et al. 2017 - - 288 - - - - 42 - - Souza et al. 2017 - - 506 - 21 4 - 112 - - Silva et al. 2018 37 17 844 393 - 715 64 430 - - Sánchez-Sánchez et al. 2018 - - 1298 - 60 22 - 1118 - - Sudhanya and Chinnamma Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 18 Calcium Magnesium Chloride Sodium Nitrogen Phosphor Potassium Sulphate Cyanide Phenols Reference 2018 110 65 1382 1560 29 16 242 310 - 0.860 Hussain et al. 2018 - - - - - - - - - 0.0000325 Castro et al. 2018 - - - - 89 7 - - - 0.010 Chicatto et al. 2018 - - 2765 - - - - - 0.090 - Singare 2019 4.11 Heavy Metals and Trace Elements Heavy metals are elements with a density greater than 4 g/cm3, such as cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel and zinc. Some heavy metals are essential in the development of living organisms, in excess, however, they represent a great environmental risk and are responsible for a variety of health problems (Burakov et al. 2018). Studies indicated that the excess of heavy metals can significantly alter microbial communities, reduce the growth and the development of animals, affect the components and the cellular metabolism, cause damage to organs and nervous systems and persists in the environment for long periods (Akpor and Muchie 2011; Tchounwou et al. 2012; Akpor et al. 2014; Khan and Malik 2018). The analyses indicated that iron and zinc were the heavy metals in higher concentrations, with values of 0.303 and 0.167 mg L-1 respectively. The other metals detected were chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, tin, as well as traces of aluminum, barium, boron and fluoride (Table 2). Studies in the literature also indicated textile effluents with the presence of arsenic, cadmium, lead and also mercury (Table 5). Most of the heavy metals in textile effluents comes from the constitution of the dye molecules, such as copper and chromium, present in certain types of pigments and metallic dyes (Guaratini and Zanoni 2000; Verma 2008). Other sources include auxiliary reagents used in textile processing, the machinery and the tubulation pipes, herbicides and pesticides, the raw material and the inlet water (Smith 1988; Bisschops and Spanjers 2003). The main methods used in the removal of heavy metals from wastewater are the chemical precipitation, solvent extraction, membrane filtration, ion exchange, electrochemical removal, coagulation and aerobic granule method (Premkumar et al. 2018; Burakov et al. 2018; Sarma and Tay 2018). In order to reduce the amount of heavy metals generated in the effluent, it is also proposed the substitution of dyes, pigments and conventional additives for eco-friendly products and heavy-metal-free machinery (Smith 1988; Beltrame 2000; Singh and Iyer 2004). Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 19 Table 5. Maximum concentrations of heavy metals and trace elements found in different studies with textile effluents (mg L-1). C om po ne nt A ct ua l s tu dy B el tra m e 20 00 Yu su ff an d So ni ba re 2 00 4 Fa ry al a nd H am ee d 20 05 A li et a l. 20 09 Pr as ad a nd R ao 20 11 Si ng ar e an d D ha ba rd e 20 14 Ja dh av e t a l. 20 15 Pa til e t a l. 20 15 A ja o et a l. 20 17 H us sa in e t a l. 20 18 R oy e t a l. 20 18 A sg ha r 2 01 8 Aluminum 0.104 - 0.610 - - - - - - - 2.500 - - Arsenic <0.005 - - - - - - - - - 0.025 116.400 - Barium 0.025 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.075 Boron 0.125 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.021 Cadmium <0.001 0.016 - 0.690 0.690 0.500 - - - - 0.880 - - Lead <0.005 0.407 - 0.320 0.360 0.370 2.060 0.170 - 0.100 - 0.173 - Copper 0.015 0.251 5.140 9.700 9.730 3.620 45.580 2.740 - 1.096 - 0.133 - Chromium 0.036 1.612 0.500 2.140 2.200 1.500 2.500 0.400 - 0.061 9.700 0.749 0.004 Tin 0.013 0.285 - - - - - - - - - - - Iron 0.303 3.889 2.140 112.000 7.000 6.420 55.300 0.700 1.700 8.730 14.300 0.842 0.026 Fluoride 0.253 - - - - - - - 12.000 - - - - Mercury <0.0002 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.003 Manganese 0.045 - 1.650 7.400 7.530 5.400 - 0.470 - 1.050 - - 0.010 Nickel 0.063 0.488 - 1.110 1.210 0.400 2.000 - - - 7.600 - - Silver <0.005 - - - - - - - - - - - Selenium <0.005 - - - - - - - - - - - Zinc 0.167 0.497 0.360 7.870 7.850 1.000 9.200 2.480 - 0.201 - 0.230 - 4.12. Ecotoxicological Parameters The ecotoxicological results indicated that D. magna was the test organism with highest sensitivity towards textile effluent sample, with EC50 value of 3.04%. The microcrustacean had shown a high degree of sensitivity and demonstrated good reproducibility against different types of pollutants and industrial effluents (Biesinger and Christensen 1972; LeBlanc 1980; Bae and Freeman 2007; Chen et al. 2007). According to table 1, the effluent was classified as very toxic, with 32.9 ATU. Previous reports by Villegas-Navarro et al. (1999) and Forgiarini and Souza (2007) also found textile effluents with high levels of toxicity using this bioindicator, with EC50 values of 3.9 and 8.3% respectively. Other authors, who used the Daphnia pulex and Artemia salina, reported lethal concentration (LC50) values of 72.0 and 27.6% respectably (Wells et al. 1994; Souza et al. 2017). The phytotoxic experiment with L. sativa seeds indicated a medium degree of acute toxicity, with EC50 value of 66.24% and 1.50 ATU (Table 2). The phytotoxic seed germination assay, as previously mentioned by Wang and Keturi (1990), required low cost, simple equipment and mainly, low sampling volume. According to the results, the original textile effluent concentration inhibited about 76% on L. sativa germination Reports by Phugare et al. (2011) and Bedoui et al. (2015) indicated a total germination inhibition by this kind of effluent using the species Triticum aestivum, Phaseoulus mungo and Lepidium sativum. It was seen by Jadhav et al. (2010) and Alvim et al. (2011) that concentrations up to 10% of textile effluent was enough to cause genotoxic chromosomal abnormalities in the cells of the roots of Allium Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 20 cepa onion. Both seed germination and genotoxicity assays were seen to have great importance to access the total ecotoxicity presented by this kind of effluent. Oxidative and biologic methods such as the photocatalytic, ozonation, aerobic and anaerobic degradation, have demonstrated success in reducing the toxicity of textile effluents (De Moraes et al. 2000; Bedoui et al. 2015). It is important to mention that previous studies have shown that effluents from different stages of textile processing had different levels of ecotoxicity (Villegas-Navarro et al. 2001; Zhang et al. 2012; Liang et al. 2018). Moreover, studies conducted by Wang et al. (2002) indicated that the chemicals used in textile processing also indicated different degrees of acute toxicity. Knowing that the presence of different toxic substances can exhibit unpredictable behavior if combined (Tigini et al. 2010; Charles et al. 2011), it is recommended to treat the effluent in a dedicated manner, as proposed by Correia et al. (1994), that is, a specific treatment for each unit step of the industrial process. Figure 2. Inhibitory effect of two bioindicators as a function of textile effluent concentration. The bands represent a 95% interval of confidence. 5. Conclusion It was concluded that textile effluent was alkaline, high colored, with a BOD/COD ratio of 0.49. There were significantly concentrations of oils and greases and great quantities of total solids, mostly composed by dissolved ones. It was detected the presence of heavy metals such as copper, manganese, chromium, tin, iron, nickel, zin and traces of aluminum, barium and boron. There was also the presence of great quantities of chloride, sulphate, sodium, and Journal of Environment and Ecology ISSN 2157-6092 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 www.macrothink.org/jee 21 components such as nitrogen, ammoniacal nitrogen, phosphor, potassium, magnesium and fluoride. The analyzes did not indicated the presence of phenols, chloroform and cyanide. The bacteria enumeration indicated the presence of 5.3 x 105 UFC mL-1 of viable bacteria, 2.0 x102 total coliforms and 1.0 x 102 of fecal coliforms. The ecotoxicological analyses indicated a very toxic effluent with D. magna (32.9 ATU) and a moderate and toxic degree using L. sativa (ATU 1.50). The parameters analyzed in the study differed considerably to other studies in the literature. The high variation is due to the use of different types of chemical reagents, colorants and raw material. Mixed and integrated systems, which are commonly used in full-scale plants, tend to have better treatment performance. The optimization of the treatment process is considered as a great strategy in reducing the volume and toxicity of textile effluents. Indeed, the dedicated treatment of effluents and optimization of the industrial processes themselves, as well as the development of new machinery and the use of environmentally friendly reagents, are also considered to reduce the pollution generated by this type of industry. From this study, it is expected better estimates related to the development of new methods of textile wastewater treatment, production techniques, and mainly, improvement of well-being and health of employees and consumers. Acknowledgements The author thanks Dra. Aparecida Marin-Morales (Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP) for her kindful support, friendship and charity. The study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. References Abo‐Elela, S. I., El‐Gohary, F. A., Ali, H. I., & Wahaab, R. S. A. (1988). Treatability studies of textile wastewater. 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