E M A A a b c d R a A R A A K C C C I L P I l f t P A c b a c f 1 ( Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 15 (2017) 209–215 Supported by Boticário Group Foundation for Nature Protection www.perspectecolconserv.com ssays and Perspectives ovement ecology research to advance conservation of South merica’s grassland migratory birds lex E. Jahna,∗, Vanesa Bejaranoa, Víctor R. Cuetob, Adrián S. Di Giacomoc, Carla S. Fontanad Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista, São Paulo, SP, Brazil Centro de Investigación Esquel de Montaña y Estepa Patagónica (CIEMEP), CONICET & Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia, Esquel, Chubut, Argentina Laboratorio de Biología de la Conservación, Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Litoral (CECOAL), CONICET, Corrientes, Argentina PUCRS, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Laboratório de Ornitologia, Museu de Ciências e Tecnologia, Curso de Pós-graduaç ão em Zoologia, Porto Alegre, S, Brazil r t i c l e i n f o rticle history: eceived 28 November 2016 ccepted 11 July 2017 vailable online 29 July 2017 eywords: arry-over effects errado onnectivity ntra-tropical migration lanos ampas a b s t r a c t South America is home to some of the largest, most diverse grasslands on the planet, providing critical habitat for numerous plants and animals and vital resources for millions of people. Yet, at the dawn of the 21st Century, South America’s grasslands are experiencing rapid, widespread and unprecedented impacts from activities such as pesticide use, drainage, urbanization, and conversion to industrial monocultures. In combination with the pervasive effects of global climate change, these impacts have the potential to ripple across grassland food webs in ways we still poorly understand. How do these impacts affect the behavior, ecology and population demographics of the numerous migratory birds that call these grasslands home? Given the historical lack of research on grassland birds across the New World, we know very little about how to best conserve them, much less which grassland migratory birds are currently impacted or likely will be in the near future. We argue that, by applying recent theoretical and technological advances in the field of movement ecology, rapid advances can be achieved in understanding grassland migratory birds in South America. We outline the current state of knowledge about grassland birds that migrate within South America, the main threats to their survival, and how the emerging field of movement ecology can contribute to understanding how to conserve and manage their populations. Only with information on the full annual cycle of these birds will we be able to formulate effective conservation and management plans to ensure the long-term viability of these unique species. © 2017 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação. Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc-nd/4.0/). ntroduction South America is home to a highly diverse array of grass- ands, from relatively small grassland ‘islands’ located within larger orested landscapes, to high elevation Andean Puna and Páramo, o extensive lowland ‘seas’ of grass such as the south-temperate ampas and tropical Llanos (reviewed by Vickery et al., 1999; zpiroz et al., 2012). Given South America’s status as the planet’s radle of bird diversity, it is not surprising that the continent’s road spectrum of tropical and temperate grasslands play host to taxonomically, behaviorally and ecologically diverse set of bird ommunities, which have been adapting to these open ecosystems or millennia (Ribeiro et al., 2016). ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: JahnA@si.edu (A.E. Jahn). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2017.07.003 679-0073/© 2017 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação. Published by http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Yet, with few exceptions, South America’s grassland birds have been poorly studied. Although the last decade has seen an increase in research on grassland bird communities (e.g., Azpiroz and Blake, 2009; Di Giacomo et al., 2010; Medan et al., 2011; Isacch and Cardoni, 2011; Codesido et al., 2013; Dias et al., 2013; Dotta et al., 2015; Fontana et al., 2016), we still know very little about such basic aspects of their biology as life history strategies, winter habitat use, movements and evolutionary history (e.g., Jahn et al., 2009; Azpiroz et al., 2012), in large measure due to a lack of long-term, standard- ized schemes to monitor their populations. In most cases, we can only guess at the drivers of their population dynamics or of the effect on their populations of recent, widespread and rapid changes to their native habitats. Compared to many resident species, migra- tory birds in the Neotropics tend to have large wintering ranges (which has been shown in European breeding species to be nega- tively related to population declines, Gilroy et al., 2016) and lower habitat specificity, such that they have generally been of lower Elsevier Editora Ltda. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2017.07.003 https://www.perspectecolconserv.com http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.pecon.2017.07.003&domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ mailto:JahnA@si.edu dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2017.07.003 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 2 gy an c s e S t M l g e l l t g v ( w N e f u I i p p 2 m e t 2 w i m p l t i c A p fi a i n n i a e i t w b ( A t ( i s L e g 10 A.E. Jahn et al. / Perspectives in Ecolo onservation concern than residents (Stotz et al., 1996). However, ome grassland migratory birds are year-long habitat specialists, specially those occupying native grasslands and marshes, such as porophila seedeaters (Stotz et al., 1996; Silva, 1999). We also know very little about the role of South American migra- ory birds within their ecosystems (but see Bravo et al., 2015). igratory organisms, including birds, often provide key physical inks between habitats and ecosystems, for example transporting enes and propagules (e.g., Viana et al., 2016a, reviewed by Viana t al., 2016b), which can influence gene flow and lead to the estab- ishment of new species (Bauer and Hoye, 2014). Because of the arge number of birds involved (i.e., millions of individuals) and dis- ances they travel (i.e., hundreds to thousands of kilometers), many rassland migratory bird species in South America likely provide ital ecosystem services to the grassland system(s) they inhabit e.g., Swainson’s Hawks, Buteo swainsoni, feeding on grasshoppers hile overwintering in south-temperate grasslands; Sarasola and egro, 2005), as has been shown in other habitats (Ş ekercioğlu t al., 2016). Given their likely important role in maintaining intact, unctioning grassland ecosystems, there is an intrinsic merit in nderstanding and conserving migratory birds in these systems. n turn, if the movement of grassland birds affects the functional- ty of grassland ecosystems, then understanding their movements rovides vital important information on the best conservation ractices for these ecosystems (reviewed by Mitchell et al., 013). There is growing recognition that understanding how organisms ove in space and time is imperative to a full appreciation of their volution, behavior and ecology, as well as an ability to identify heir vulnerabilities on a rapidly changing planet (Marra et al., 015; Wilcove and Wikelski, 2008). This new paradigm, combined ith rapid technological and methodological advances in remote nformation gathering and analysis, is leading to rapid growth of ovement ecology research (Nathan et al., 2008). In spite of the aucity of information on the movements of South America’s grass- and migratory birds, the application of existing movement ecology heories and tools for data collection and analysis can remedy this mportant gap in our knowledge of this group of birds and how to onserve them. Our first objective here is to provide a brief overview of South merica’s grasslands and their migratory birds, outlining known or otential threats to their populations. Second, we describe how the eld of movement ecology, including its theoretical framework and nalytical methods can improve our understanding of South Amer- ca’s grassland migratory birds, and consequently, the information ecessary to develop effective conservation and management plan- ing for their populations. Although research at the species level is mportant for promoting grassland bird conservation (e.g., Azpiroz nd Blake, 2009; Dotta et al., 2015), we focus here on movement cology research at the individual and population levels, since an ndividual’s behavior ultimately impacts processes at the popula- ion level. For example, populations can be negatively impacted hen individual migrants do not correctly time their arrival on reeding grounds to match changes in food resource availability Both et al., 2006). brief introduction to South America’s grassland migrants For the purposes of this discussion, we will focus on migra- ory birds occurring in three of South America’s largest grasslands: 1) south-temperate grasslands of southeastern South America, ncluding the upland grasslands (i.e., “campos de altitude”) of outhern Brazil, the Pampas of the Uruguay, Paraná-Paraguay and a Plata River basins, and the wet grasslands of the Chaco of north- rn Argentina and southern Paraguay (Fig. 1; for a review of these rasslands and their birds, see Azpiroz et al., 2012), (2) the campo d Conservation 15 (2017) 209–215 grasslands of the Cerrado ecoregion at the center of the continent (Fig. 1), and (3) the Llanos of the Orinoco River Basin in eastern Colombia and Venezuela (Fig. 1). Birds representative of several migratory systems occur in these grasslands: (1) South American temperate-tropical migrants (sensu Joseph, 1997), which breed in south-temperate grasslands and over- winter in campo Cerrado grasslands (e.g., Chestnut Seedeater, Sporophila cinnamomea; Tawny-bellied Seedeater, Sporophila hypoxantha; Tropeiro Seedeater, Sporophila beltoni; Repenning and Fontana, 2016), or more rarely, in the Llanos (e.g., Blue-black Grassquit, Volatinia jacarina; Fork-tailed Flycatcher, Tyrannus savana, Jahn et al., 2013). (2) South American cool-temperate migrants (sensu Joseph, 1997), which breed in Patagonian steppe and overwinter in south- temperate grasslands (e.g., Chocolate-vented Tyrant, Neoxolmis rufiventris; Gray-bellied Shrike-Tyrant, Agriornis micropterus). (3) Intra-tropical migrants, which breed, migrate and overwinter in tropical grasslands, including campo Cerrado grasslands (e.g., Lesser Elaenia, Elaenia chiriquensis; Guaraldo et al., 2016; Lined Seedeater, Sporophila lineola; Silva, 1995). (4) Nearctic-Neotropical migrants, which breed in the grasslands or arctic tundra of North America and overwinter in the Pam- pas (e.g., Upland Sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda; Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus; Renfrew et al., 2013). Admittedly, such a categorization does not fully describe the full diversity of avian migration in South America’s grasslands, since some species fit into more than one category. For example, Chaco Pipit (Anthus chacoensis) migrates wholly within south-temperate grasslands (Casañas et al., 2007). Additionally, partial bird migra- tion, in which only some populations of a species are migratory, is common in South America (Chesser, 1994). Yet, this scheme pro- vides a framework within which to draw comparisons and discuss research and conservation priorities. Of 288 grassland bird species in South America, 46 (16%) are migratory (including Nearctic-Neotropical migrants, Chesser, 1994; Vickery et al., 1999). To the best of our knowledge, the South American grasslands with the largest prevalence of migra- tory species are the south-temperate grasslands of southeastern South America. Of 109 species that occur in those grasslands, 33 (30%) are migratory (including Nearctic-Neotropical migrants; Azpiroz et al., 2012). Hereafter, we focus on birds that migrate wholly within South America. Primary threats to South America’s grasslands and their migrants South America’s grasslands face a broad suite of human impacts, resulting in greater pressure on natural resources such as water and less space for native species. Large-scale agriculture and overgraz- ing by cattle are arguably the greatest threats. Extensive planting of soy (Glycine max), rice (Oryza spp.), non-native grasses and trees, and widespread burning especially threaten the grasslands of the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes (Silva and Bates, 2002; Klink and Machado, 2005; Silva et al., 2006; Repenning et al., 2010), which are among the most threatened Neotropical grasslands (Stotz et al., 1996; Azpiroz et al., 2012). In the Pampas, extensive planting of soy, rice and wheat (Triticum spp.) and of exotic tree species such as Eucalyptus sp. (Krapovickas and Di Giacomo, 1998; Dias et al., 2013) have greatly reduced native habitat (reviewed by Azpiroz et al., 2012), leading to significant changes in the composition of grassland bird commu- nities (Dias et al., 2013). Replacement of cattle-grazing cropping systems by continuous cropping systems (Medan et al., 2011) has led to overgrazing by cattle, fire and erosion (Berretta, 2001). In Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, avian richness and density A.E. Jahn et al. / Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 15 (2017) 209–215 211 F ws rep g an gra A – l a s C 2 a 2 t ‘ t ( w a t A e N c ig. 1. Examples of bird migration between major grasslands of South America. Arro rasslands (i.e., Fork-tailed Flycatcher and Lined Seedeater), between South Americ merican grasslands and North America (i.e., Upland Sandpiper). especially that of grassland specialists – has diminished as grass- and habitat has been converted to crop monocultures (Azpiroz nd Blake, 2009; Codesido et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2015). Inva- ion by the non-native South African Lovegrass (Eragrostis plana; arvalho and Batello, 2009) and other exotic species (Medan et al., 011) are major threats. The use of agrochemicals, which pose threat to multiple species, is widespread (Rivera-Milán et al., 004; Zaccagnini, 2004), and several species are trapped for the pet rade (e.g., Sporophila seedeaters) many of which are classified as Globally Threatened’ (BirdLife International, 2017). In Venezuela, hreats to grassland migratory birds include use of toxic pesticides e.g., Bobolink; Renfrew et al., 2013). Activities directly associated ith crop monocultures, such as the persecution of migratory birds s agriculture pests (e.g., Bobolink; Basili, 1997) translates to addi- ional pressures on their populations. Currently, 12 grassland bird species migrating within South merica are classified as ‘Globally Threatened’ or ‘Near Threat- ned’ (BirdLife International, 2017). Six species are considered ear-threatened (Hudson’s Canastero, Asthenes hudsoni; Bay- apped Wren-spinetail, Spartonoica maluroides; Bearded Tachuri, resent general direction of migration of species that move between South American sslands and Patagonian steppe (i.e., Chocolate-vented Tyrant), and between South Polystictus pectoralis; Dark-throated Seedeater, Sporophila ruficollis; Rufous-rumped Seedeater, Sporophila hypochroma; Black-bellied Seedeater, Sporophila melanogaster; BirdLife International, 2017). Another six species are considered globally threatened (Marsh Seedeater, Sporophila palustris; Chestnut Seedeater, S. cinnamomea; Tropeiro Seedeater, S. beltoni; Ibera Seedeater, Sporophila iberaen- sis; Strange-tailed Tyrant, Alectrurus risora; Pampas Meadowlark, Leistes defilippii; BirdLife International, 2017). The last two species have had their migratory behavior disrupted due to habitat loss and population decline. The Strange-tailed Tyrant has historically bred from southern Paraguay to central Argentina (Collar et al., 1992), overwintering from northern Argentina (Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo, 2004) to central Brazil (Pacheco and Gonzaga, 1994). At present, only small populations are resident in southern Paraguay and northern Argentina (Formosa, Chaco and Corrientes provinces). The Pampas Meadowlark was historically a partial migrant, with most of the breeding population located in southern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, and which migrated north to southern Brazil and Uruguay (Tubaro and Gabelli, 1999). At present, a large fraction of the population remains resident throughout the year in southern 2 gy an B s g e g i s p a k n i b C r t u M l w n i e 2 a a e t 2 u o t t a e c s b ( a o b c d c i s s p i a N w p b m t w d 12 A.E. Jahn et al. / Perspectives in Ecolo uenos Aires Province (Gabelli et al., 2004), isolated from another mall resident population in western Uruguay (Azpiroz, 2005). Although numerous recommendations have been made for rassland bird conservation in South America (reviewed by Azpiroz t al., 2012), our lack of knowledge on the basic natural history of rassland migratory birds on the continent has hindered mean- ngful, population-level or even species-specific planning for these pecies. We still lack such basic information about where specific opulations overwinter, where their migratory routes are located, nd even which species migrate. In summary, the lack of basic nowledge on grassland migratory bird biology, combined with ovel and constantly changing impacts on the grasslands they nhabit requires an urgent, inter-disciplinary, and geographically road research and conservation effort. arry-over effects, connectivity and migratory networks Effective conservation planning for migratory organisms first equires understanding their behavioral and physiological ecology hroughout the entire annual cycle, since these have the potential to ltimately affect a population’s growth rate (Harrison et al., 2011; arra et al., 2015). For example, the events that occur within the ife of an individual bird may be driven by mechanisms operating ithin a given season (e.g., nest predation driven by microhabitat ear the nest), as well as between seasons (e.g., winter habitat qual- ty affecting body condition and reproductive success in summer; .g., Marra et al., 1998; Studds and Marra, 2005; Norris and Taylor, 006). Studying such ‘carry-over effects’ can be challenging, since migratory organism’s annual cycle may involve events occurring cross hundreds to thousands of kilometers. However, carry-over ffects are important to understand, since they have the potential o negatively impact migratory bird productivity (e.g., Inger et al., 010). Understanding how processes such as carry-over effects scale p from the individual to the population level (e.g., consequences f individual winter habitat quality on demographic rates during he breeding season) requires information on migratory connec- ivity (i.e., the extent to which individuals from the same breeding rea migrate to the same nonbreeding area and vice versa; Webster t al., 2002; Norris and Marra, 2007). For example, a hypotheti- al breeding population of Tawny-bellied seedeaters may exhibit trong migratory connectivity, such that most or all individuals of a reeding population overwinter in the central Cerrado grasslands Fig. 2A). Conversely, that population may be weakly connected mong seasons, with most individuals overwintering across most f the Cerrado ecoregion (Fig. 2B). If, as in the first case, most Tawny- ellied seedeaters from that breeding population overwinter in the entral Cerrado and that region experiences serious habitat degra- ation, that breeding population may be negatively affected (i.e., if arry-over effects from winter to breeding occur). In North Amer- ca, populations of Cerulean Warblers (Setophaga cerulea) with the trongest migratory connectivity between breeding and wintering ites are those that have experienced the steepest declines in their opulations (Jones et al., 2008). Potentially more challenging is research on processes operat- ng within a migratory network, composed of breeding, stopover nd overwintering sites used by multiple populations (Taylor and orris, 2010; Betini et al., 2015). For example, habitat loss at a given intering site can affect the connectivity of two or more breeding opulations. In the case of our hypothetical population of Tawny- ellied seedeaters with strong migratory connectivity (Fig. 2A), ajor habitat loss in the central Cerrado, where a large propor- ion of a breeding population overwinters, could potentially lead to eaker connectivity of that population to that wintering site and rive a larger proportion of them to overwinter in other regions d Conservation 15 (2017) 209–215 of the Cerrado (if habitat is available and they have the intrinsic flexibility to do so; Taylor and Norris, 2010). Given the challenges of collecting adequate information on carry-over effects at the individual level, and on connectivity and migratory networks at the population level, it is not surprising that full annual cycle research of migratory bird populations is rare, even in the relatively well-studied Nearctic-Neotropical and Palearctic- Paleotropical migratory systems. Logistic concerns aside, many studies do not include analysis of movement, due in part to a mis- match in the temporal or taxonomic scale at which movement occurs and the scale at which most biodiversity research is focused (Nathan et al., 2008; Jeltsch et al., 2013). Indeed, much research is focused on the breeding season (Marra et al., 2015) and at the species and community levels, whereas movement ecology is pri- marily concerned with processes occurring at the individual level and beyond a single season (Jeltsch et al., 2013). Movement ecology research to conserve South American grassland migrants How can movement ecology research best contribute to conser- vation of South America’s grassland migratory birds? We suggest that addressing the following questions is fundamental for under- standing how to best conserve a given grassland migratory bird population. Some of these questions may not be immediately feasibly addressed, due to lack of funding, training, or logistical hurdles. Yet, considering these questions, in combination with a well-defined rationale about which questions are worth the time and money needed to answer them (McGowan et al., 2016), can aid in deciding how to prioritize current and future research objectives and conservation planning. Which populations of a given species migrate? Although migra- tory patterns at the species level are increasingly better described, due to basic biogeographic research and growing, publicly avail- able online databases (e.g., GBIF, eBird, WikiAves), we still have only a rudimentary understanding of migration of South America’s grassland birds at the population level (Azpiroz et al., 2012), as is generally true of most bird species that migrate within South America (Jahn et al., 2009). Because partial migration is so com- mon on the continent (Stotz et al., 1996), detecting migration in a given population is not straightforward (e.g., Sagario et al., 2014). Nevertheless, standardized, systematic and long-term monitoring, including international collaborations, promise unprecedented dis- coveries about how and why birds migrate on the continent (Jahn et al., 2009). What is the migratory connectivity of grassland migrants? Because a basic grasp of population migratory connectivity is imperative for understanding how individual attributes drive population-level dynamics, evaluating the level of migratory connectivity (or lack of knowledge thereof) is key during the conservation planning pro- cess (Martin et al., 2007; Finch et al., 2017). Furthermore, a basic grasp of connectivity across several populations offers an oppor- tunity to develop conservation plans that take into consideration mechanisms operating throughout a species’ migratory network (i.e., across multiple populations; Taylor and Norris, 2010). Although studying migratory connectivity can be challenging, for example due to lack of isotope maps for many regions, new techniques are constantly being developed for modeling connec- tivity, including those for species which occur in areas with few isotopic measurements (Pekarsky et al., 2015). However, a detailed description of the molt cycle is still lacking for many migratory bird species in South America, which precludes using feather isotope analysis to study connectivity. Other tissues, such as claws (e.g., Guaraldo et al., 2016) can also be sampled to study the connectiv- ity of South America’s migratory birds. It is therefore imperative for researchers to collect tissue samples, such as claws and feathers, as A.E. Jahn et al. / Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 15 (2017) 209–215 213 Fig. 2. Hypothetical breeding population of Tawny-bellied Seedeater (circle) showing strong migratory connectivity (A), in which most individuals from the breeding p (wide w onne m w i t m o s i ( d ( a 2 d s ( a i s m t ( t J e d t d p m e 2 ( a m o t c fi e s t i opulation move to the same wintering location in the central Cerrado ecoregion intering locations elsewhere in the Cerrado (narrow arrows), and weak migratory c igrate to several wintering locations. ell as detailed molt data from migratory birds in South Amer- ca. Additionally, as tracking devices become smaller and lighter, heir use is a viable option to understand the connectivity of many igratory species (Kays et al., 2015). What are the individual attributes of grassland migrants through- ut the year? Identifying appropriate management actions and the cale at which to implement them requires an understanding of ndividual attributes, such as timing of spring or fall migration Allen and Singh, 2016; McGowan and Possingham, 2016) and ispersal (Jønsson et al., 2016), and potential for molt-migration Guaraldo et al., 2016). One might ask: How, to where and why does grassland migratory bird move (Nathan et al., 2008; Jeltsch et al., 013)? For example, collecting data on timing of migration (e.g., ates of arrival on wintering and breeding grounds) of Sporophila eedeaters, combined with data on timing of seeding phenology since their migration is adapted, potentially, to track seed avail- bility; Remsen and Hunn, 1979; Silva, 1999), can provide vital nformation on identifying when and where bottlenecks to their urvival and condition exist. Though logistically challenging, collecting individual move- ent data can be accomplished by employing recently developed echnologies and techniques, such as miniature tracking devices reviewed by Kays et al., 2015), which offer an unsurpassed ability o understand the annual cycle of even relatively small migrants. uvenile dispersal in particular has been difficult to study, yet merging techniques promise an opportunity to begin quantifying ispersal, even for small organisms. Given its key role in coloniza- ion and the mixing of gene pools within and between populations, ispersal research is an exciting and rapidly growing field that romises important breakthroughs (Jønsson et al., 2016). In sum- ary, linking movement data with parallel data on physiology (e.g., nergetic condition; Peig and Green, 2009), molt timing (Barta et al., 008), demographics (age and sex), and nest and/or adult survival e.g., with mark-recapture models, Hostetler et al., 2015) is vital for dvancing grassland migratory bird conservation. What carry-over effects exist in the annual cycle of grassland igrants? A basic understanding of if and how carry-over effects perate in a given population is vital to streamlining conserva- ion action, especially if a population exhibits strong migratory onnectivity, since interactions between seasons can be magni- ed in such a population (Calvert et al., 2009). As in our previous xample of a hypothetical breeding population of Tawny-bellied eedeaters exhibiting strong migratory connectivity (Fig. 2A), habi- at loss where they overwinter potentially translates to negative mpacts during the breeding season via carry-over effects. Although arrow), with smaller proportions of the breeding population moving to different ctivity (B), in which similar proportions of individuals from the breeding population carry-over effects are challenging to study, novel analytical tech- niques, such as state-dependent modeling, can help distinguish changes in population size as a result of carry-over effects (e.g., reduced reproductive output due to poor winter habitat quality) versus other sources (e.g., mortality; Harrison et al., 2011). What role do grassland migrants play in their ecosystems? Study- ing how the species of interest impacts its ecosystem is a key step in identifying conservation priorities, since using animal movement data for conservation planning permits pinpointing the ecosystem services provided by movement and therefore management at the landscape level (Jeltsch et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2013; Allen and Singh, 2016). Additionally, given that at least some of South Amer- ica’s migratory grassland birds occupy more than one grassland type (Fig. 1), they may not only play an important role within one, but among several grassland types. As a result, losing such migra- tory populations may not only alter ecosystem services locally, but regionally. Thus, international research collaboration on grassland bird migration may not only serve to understand migrants, but their role within their ecosystem(s) throughout the year, and how they promote ecosystem function at different spatiotemporal scales. Conclusions In summary, incorporating a movement ecology perspective to basic and applied research on South American grassland migratory birds promises a more comprehensive understanding of their biol- ogy across the year, and therefore vital information for conserving and managing their populations. Combining molecular, ecological, behavioral and physiological approaches with movement ecology’s theoretical perspective and analytical tools offers a much broader appreciation of the lives of grassland birds. Given the diverse set of threats to South America’s grasslands and their migrants, from fragmentation of habitat locally to climate change at a larger scale, such interdisciplinary research is badly needed and necessary to address such pressing questions as: What are the primary drivers of population demographic rates of grassland migratory birds? And, given that migratory birds on other continents have been nega- tively impacted by climate change (e.g., Both et al., 2006; Wilcove and Wikelski, 2008; Jones and Cresswell, 2010), which populations of grassland migratory birds in South America are most vulnerable to climate change? Accomplishing this will require moving away from breeding- centric research toward that on the full annual cycle of individuals. Its success will no doubt depend heavily on strong research collab- orations across national and international political boundaries, as 2 gy an i i f p y a o S a s e T t t c A b e d c 2 C s R A A A A B B B B B B B B C C C C C C D 14 A.E. Jahn et al. / Perspectives in Ecolo s true of many conservation initiatives (e.g., ‘Alianza del Pastizal’ nitiative, http://www.alianzadelpastizal.org). Only through such a spatially and temporally broader research ocus and through the creation of strong international research artnerships will we achieve a basic understanding of the complex et fascinating lives of grassland migratory birds throughout their nnual cycle, including the influence of such processes as carry- ver effects on the survival of individuals and ultimately, species. uch international research initiatives are a prerequisite to the cre- tion of management and conservation actions at an appropriate patial scale, since many species (e.g., Fork-tailed Flycatcher; Jahn t al., 2013) spend different parts of the year in different countries. he time is ripe for researchers to incorporate movement ecology heory and tools to further our understanding of grassland migra- ory bird biology in South America, and consequently our ability to onserve these unique animals. cknowledgements We dedicate this paper to the late Peter Vickery. This manuscript enefitted greatly from the comments of two anonymous review- rs. AEJ thanks the Fundaç ão de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado e São Paulo (2012/17225-2, 2013/19116-9), ASDG thanks Agen- ia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT, PICT 014-3397) and CSF thanks Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento ientífico e Tecnológico (CNPq 303318/2013-9, 457475/2012-2) for upport. eferences llen, A.M., Singh, N.J., 2016. Linking movement ecology with wildlife management and conservation. Front. Ecol. Evol. 3, 155. zpiroz, A.B., 2005. Conservation of pampas meadowlark Sturnella defilippii in Uruguay. Cotinga 23, 71–73. zpiroz, A.B., Blake, J.G., 2009. Avian assemblages in altered and natural grasslands in the northern Campos of Uruguay. Condor 111, 21–35. zpiroz, A.B., Isacch, J.P., Dias, R.A., et al., 2012. Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: a review. J. 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