3D bioprinted melanoma models: a novel paradigm for the assessment of anticancer strategies combining PDT and drug delivery systems

Malignant melanoma remains the most aggressive type of skin cancer, leading to a high rate of associated death over the past decade, often exhibiting resistance to conventional therapies and presenting significant challenges for preclinical testing. In this instance, the complexity of the progression and the interaction within the tumor microenvironment highlight the necessity for advanced models. Traditional 2D cultures and standard 3D systems, such as spheroids and organoids, fail to fully replicate native skin architecture and lack reproducibility, vascularization, and immune integration. Recent advances in 3D bioprinting have enabled the development of melanoma models that more accurately mimic human skin by incorporating multiple cell types, extracellular matrix components, and spatial control. These models support the evaluation of innovative therapies, including nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems and photodynamic therapy (PDT). This review discusses the evolution of in vitro melanoma modeling, highlighting the role of bioprinting technologies and bioink design within this setting, and investigates emerging applications in PDT and drug delivery systems, assessing the advances and current challenges in the context of melanoma.Graphical abstract